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Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Leo Montalvo was born on June 9, 1943, in México; when he was nine years old, he came to the United States; he also worked in the fields for a time; during his senior year in high school, he worked as an assistant cook at a bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas; while there, he worked in the kitchen helping to prepare meals and cleaning; he went to college and eventually graduated from law school; later, he became involved in politics, and he went on to serve two terms as mayor of McAllen, Texas.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Montalvo recalls his senior year in high school when he worked as an assistant cook at a bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas; his shift started after school at 3:30 and lasted until 11:30; in addition, he also worked Saturdays and Sundays; he earned a little over $1.00 an hour; the braceros were given breakfast, lunch, and dinner; the meals consisted of chicken or meat, which was prepared as carne guisada, picadillo, or papas con carne picada, beans, powdered potatoes, bread, milk or an orange drink, and fresh fruit; anywhere between 200 and 300 people would eat at once, depending on the time of day; breakfast was served between 7:00 and 7:30, and dinner was served between 5:30 and 6:00; the braceros were always allowed a second serving if they so desired, and they were never denied more food; the mess hall was comprised of an open area with nothing but tables and up front was the counter; in order to get served a meal, the men would move in a line alongside the counter with their trays; he goes on to recall particular instances with braceros while he was in town; in addition, he comments on how and why he views the use of braceros as exploitative; in his opinion, a legal guest worker program would be beneficial insofar as it would ensure payment for the workers and provide an avenue for complaints.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Laurentina Ramos was born on August 24, 1922, in Rio Grande City, Texas; her parents were migrant workers, and she consequently went to school in Roma, Texas; in 1945, she married Benito Juárez; he owned a ranch that had been in his family for several generations; in the mid 1950s, they began hiring braceros to help with the harvesting of the cotton.


Summary of Interview: Ms. Ramos married Benito Juárez in 1945; her husband owned a ranch in Delmita, Texas, that had been in his family for several generations; although her parents were migrant workers, she did not begin ranching until shortly after getting married; she and her husband knew about the braceros because they would often come to work in the neighboring city of Edinburg, Texas; in the mid 1950s, they began hiring braceros to help during the cotton season; they would hire between eighteen and twenty workers to help with the harvesting of the cotton; Laurentina recalls that most of the workers were between the ages of twenty and forty; the braceros would stay in the old abandoned house that belonged to Benito’s parents; although there were no beds in the house, the workers were given plenty of blankets and a radio for entertainment; they would use the bathrooms and washing machines in the main house; oftentimes, the braceros were passed on to her brother-in-law, and they would help him on his ranch; she would interact with the braceros often, as she would weigh the cotton they picked; in addition, she goes on to describe what some of the braceros were like in general and specific memories she has of them.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Reynaldo Chapa was born on July 17, 1932, in Edinburg, Texas, but he was raised in Mission, Texas; in 1951, he graduated from high school; after graduating, he enlisted in the service, and he finished his tour of duty in 1955; after leaving the service, he began going to school at the University of Texas-Pan American; that summer he started working at a bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas; he continued working summers there until 1957; a year later, in 1958, he graduated from the university.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Chapa remembers getting out of the service in 1955; shortly thereafter, he began going to school at the University of Texas-Pan American; that summer he started working at a bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas; he worked in the selection area, which is where the braceros were sent after their medical exams when they were ready to be processed; in addition, he worked with the men that were not chosen, often due to illness, and were sent back to México; his brother also worked with him at the center as a foreign labor escort; as an escort, he would cross the border along with three or four other men to pick up potential braceros in Reynosa, Tamaulipas, México, and bring them to the center in Hidalgo; upon arriving at the center, the men were searched for drugs and weapons, fingerprinted, and medically examined, which included x-rays and delousing; the braceros were primarily hired to pick cotton in the area, but sometimes they were sent to work as far away as Arkansas or Michigan; in such an event, the farmers were responsible for transporting the braceros by bus; in addition, the farmers were expected to adhere to strict regulations with regard to their treatment of the braceros; there were about 4,000 braceros processed in a day at the center, and when things slowed down, they processed about 2,000 braceros per day.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto de Loera was born on April 16, 1940, in Calvillo, Aguascalientes, México; his father was a farmer who taught him how to work the land; he went to school only through the third grade, and from then on spent his time helping his father on the farm; in 1959, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero he worked in Arizona, California, and Texas, picking beets, cotton, lemons, lettuce, and tomatoes.


Summary of Interview: Mr. De Loera recalls his childhood and adolescence; in 1959, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; in order to begin the hiring process, he traveled from Aguascalientes to Empalme, Sonora, México; once he arrived at the processing center in Empalme, he underwent medical exams, including blood samples and x-rays; he also mentions that he was deloused and stripped in front of others as part of the medical procedures; upon being hired, he was transported by cargo train to the border along with thousands of other workers; the train had wooden benches, and he comments that the ride made him feel as though he was being treated like an animal; as a bracero, his first work contract took him to California where he picked beets and tomatoes; his subsequent contracts took him to Arizona to pick lettuce, Texas to pick cotton, and he then returned to California to pick lemons; each time he was contracted he went through the center in Empalme, Sonora, and once he went through Monterrey, Nuevo León, México; he describes the various contract lengths, amendments, extensions, and stipulations; in addition, he explains the difference between hourly and contractual pay wages; he recalls one incident when he injured his leg and was unable to work for a month; although he was not paid for the days he did not work, the doctor bill was paid; when he returned to México, he worked in the fields and in construction, but in 1971, he crossed into the United States illegally to work.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Cayetano Vázquez was born on August 7, 1929, in Concepción del Oro, Zacatecas, México; his father was a farmer, and he owned the land he worked; as a teenager, Cayetano worked in the mines of his hometown; in 1951, he crossed into the United States illegally in order to work, and he was deported shortly thereafter; two years later, in 1953, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero he worked picking various fruits and vegetables throughout the United States; he continued working with the program until 1964.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Vázquez briefly discusses his childhood and family; he recounts his time working in the mines of his hometown, in Concepción de Oro, Zacatecas, México; in 1951, he crossed into the United States illegally in order to work, and he was deported shortly thereafter; two years later, in 1953, he decided to enlist in the bracero program, and he traveled to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, to begin the process; after paying for the trip there, he had very little money left, and he had to wait two weeks before being hired; as a bracero he worked picking various fruits and vegetables throughout the United States; after each contract ended, he returned to México and began the hiring process all over again; he went through centers in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Empalme, Sonora, Hidalgo, Hidalgo, and Monterrey, Nuevo León, México; he goes on to describe the various places he worked as well as the range of jobs he performed; in addition, he comments on the contract amendments and lengths; he recalls working in Arkansas, and repeatedly being sent back and forth between there and Michigan; from 1958 to 1960, he worked primarily in California; in January of 1964, he was hired on his last contract, and he worked irrigating cotton fields.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Juan Torres was born on January 23, 1941, in Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, México; his father was a farmer, and he was the fourth eldest in a family of eleven; when he was thirteen years old, he went to school for only a year; his first job was helping his father work on the farm; he later worked as a gardener and in construction; in 1959, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in California and Texas, picking asparagus, beets, cotton, cucumbers, tomatoes, and strawberries; he continued working with the program until 1964.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Torres recalls his family and childhood; he also discusses his adolescence, and the various types of work he performed; in 1959, he decided to enlist in the bracero program; he signed his first work contract in Hidalgo, Texas, which took him to work in Raymondville, Texas; while there he picked cotton for the first time in his life; as a bracero, he worked in California and Texas, picking asparagus, beets, cotton, cucumbers, tomatoes, and strawberries; he goes on to describe the various things he would do in his free time, such as go to church, the movies, or into town to shop; in spite of his excursions, he would often send money home to his family; although he was generally in good health, he recalls one instance in which he had infection he believes he caught from picking cucumbers; he was taken to a doctor and prescribed medication that alleviated the infection; when the program ended in 1964, he returned to his hometown of Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, México; he continued working in the fields there, but he also went to school and learned how to fix tractors; sometime later, he came into the United States illegally to work; although he was deported, he returned and continued to work as farm laborer.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Ceferino Palomares was born on December 1, 1922, in Tampico, Tamaulipas, México; his father died when he was young, and his maternal grandfather cared for the family shortly thereafter; sometime later, his mother also passed away, and the family eventually drifted apart; in 1944, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; as a bracero he worked in Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania; his duties included working in the fields, in a manufacturing plant, and on the railroads.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Palomares discusses his family and childhood; he initially learned about the bracero program through an advertisement in the local newspaper; his brother, Alfonso, encouraged him to enroll in the program; in 1944, they were both hired at the contracting center in their hometown of Tampico, Tamaulipas, México; consequently, Ceferino continued to go through the center in Tampico for all of his subsequent work contracts; his first contract took him to work on the railroads in Union City, Pennsylvania; when his contract ended six months later, he returned to México; the following year, in 1945, he went to work in a steel plant in Chicago, Illinois, that manufactured military armor; while working there, he had an accident that nearly cut off his left foot; he later decided to break his contract due to the horrible working conditions, and a cousin of his found him work in a laundry mat; in 1947, he worked in the lemon fields of Ohio; after the war was over, he came into the United States illegally to live with his brother in Chicago, and he was later deported; he goes on to comment on Mexican workers who come into the United States in search of a better life and how they are often taken advantage of.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Ortiz was born on March 25, 1934, in Doctor Arroyo, Nuevo León, México; his parents were farmers, and he had six brothers and three sisters; when he was eight years old, he went to school for roughly six months before leaving to help his family with the farming duties; in 1954, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked picking crops in Arkansas and Texas.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Ortiz describes his childhood and adolescence; he initially learned about the bracero program through radio advertisements, and in 1954, he decided to enlist; in order to begin the hiring process, he and his brother traveled to the contracting center in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México; he goes on to describe what he went through at the center, including the huge crowds, waiting time, medical exams, provisions, and transportation services; upon crossing the border in Eagle Pass, Texas, he underwent a second set of medical exams, which consisted of blood samples and a delousing process; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas and Texas, where he primarily picked crops; he explains what life was like in the work camps, while detailing how the workers would go about preparing their food; in addition, he discusses how he would send money home to his family and how he would go shopping to buy them gifts during his spare time; he also mentions that although he had several opportunities to arrange for legal residency in the United States, he preferred to stay in his hometown of Doctor Arroyo, Nuevo León, México.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Socorro O. Perez was born and raised in El Paso, Texas; in 1954, she began working as a clerk and typist at Rio Vista, a bracero processing center in Socorro, Texas; she continued working there until 1957, and she later went on to become a teacher in the Ysleta and Socorro Independent School Districts.


Summary of Interview: Ms. Perez recalls how she spent her childhood and adolescence moving around in El Paso; after graduating from high school, her uncle, who worked for the employment commission, informed her that there were job openings at the local immigration offices; she applied and went through the hiring process; upon being hired in 1954, she began working as a clerk and typist at Rio Vista, a bracero processing center in Socorro, Texas; she describes what her duties consisted of while working there and the kinds of questions she asked the braceros; her observations of the braceros led her to conclude that they were humble people, and that more often than not, they were taken advantage of; she goes on to describe why she stopped working there in 1957; later, in 1972, she went back to working for immigration, but only part-time; she ends with general comments and observations about the braceros.

Description:

Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Samuel Chavira Medrano was born in September of 1925, in the municipality of General Frías, Chihuahua, México; his father was a farmer who taught him the agricultural trade; he and his family eventually moved to the Chihuahua, Chihuahua; in 1949, he married, and nearly a year later, enrolled in the bracero program.


Summary of Interview: Mr. Chavira briefly recalls his childhood; at the age of thirteen, he began working odd jobs wherever he could find them; for a brief time, he worked in construction; he knew of the bracero program because he lived in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, which was one of the programs main contracting centers; in 1950, he began the hiring process to become a bracero; he goes on to give a detailed explanation of the various phases during hiring, including his transfer to Rio Vista, a processing center in Socorro, Texas, where he was medically examined; in addition, he describes filling out the necessary paperwork; his main duties included agricultural work and caring for the cattle; as a bracero, he worked in Illinois, New Mexico, Minnesota, Mississippi, and Wisconsin; in 1952, with the help of his boss, he became a legal United States resident; two years later, he was able to do the same for his family.