10 25 3209 https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/espino_nmah005_7c4cb7c2e5.mp3 25010a8caf19f486fe2ad020be370b0d Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Loza, Mireya Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Espino, Ernesto Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 25:42 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-4:04; Mexican Labor] Ernesto reflects that his father, a Bracero, José Ortiz Espino, had the opportunity to aid the United States when it needed him most. He expresses that being a Bracero was difficult because of racism. Ernesto speaks at length about equality and sacrifice. He states that he is most proud that his parents left him an “inheritance” of self-sacrifice, “giving their lives” to serve the United States. Ernesto is proud to be Mexican. He speaks about the current debate over immigration and Mexican labor. [Mins 4:05-6:39; Ernesto’s Early Life] Ernesto is one of six siblings. Ernesto was not alive when José first became a Bracero, but as a child, he remembers that José would come and go often. He remarks that separation from family is more difficult than hard labor. During José’s term as a Bracero, Ernesto and his family lived in Ciudad de México, Distrito Federal, México. Ernesto was five years old when José ceased to be a Bracero. Afterwards, José and his family moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México in order to legalize their residency. Ernesto is grateful to José for bringing his family to the United States. [Mins 6:40-7:47; José’s Visits Home] Ernesto recalls a lot of tears of joy when José would return home in between contracts. He says that there would be joy not only because of José’s return, but also because he would bring dollars home, bringing more stability to the family. Ernesto remembers that José’s visits were very short. [Mins 7:48-9:35; José’s Places of Work] José worked as a Bracero in Nebraska, and in Fresno, California for Southern Pacific Railroad and somewhere else [Denver, Colorado] for The Great Western Sugar Company. Linda, Ernesto’s wife, remarks that José also had worked in San Francisco, California because she has in her possession a pamphlet that belonged to José about the Golden Gate Bridge. Ernesto remembers that José used to send the family postcards from the United States. [Mins 9:36-13:07; Family Recollections] Linda recounts some events that Ernesto’s mother had told her about Ernesto’s siblings. José did not meet his first-born son until his son was nine months old because he was in the United States on a Bracero contract. José wrote letters and sent money to his family while he was a Bracero. Ernesto’s family did not have a telephone at the time. José was originally from Zimapán, Hidalgo, México but moved to Ciudad de México and met his wife there. José worked for Coors Company for twenty-three years after completing his Bracero work. Ernesto’s mother’s older brother was also a Bracero in Fresno, but did not enjoy the experience. [Mins 13:08-14:42; Legalizing Residency] Ernesto relates that the owner of Coors, Mr. Azer, helped José legalize his residency. Mr. Azer was impressed with the carving work that José had accomplished, so he paid his entrance fee of one thousand dollars and wrote him a letter of recommendation. [Mins 14:43-17:34; José’s Early Life] José’s parents were agricultural workers. His older brother worked in the silver mines in the Mexican state of Hidalgo, but died of a condition related to the lungs. José’s mother did not want José to work in the mines, so she sent him to a relative’s home in Ciudad de México when he was small. He first attended school in Ciudad de México but dropped out because he disliked it. [Mins 17:35-21:31; José’s Marriage] Ernesto’s mother was seventeen or eighteen when she married José. Three months after marrying, José went to the United States as a Bracero. [Mins 21:32-End; Post-Bracero Work] Ernesto’s godfather taught José how to carve wood after he finished his Bracero work. Linda describes his woodwork at length. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Espino_NMAH005 Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Ernesto Espino creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Loza, Mireya contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Loza, Mireya Espino, Ernesto Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Mr. Ernesto Espino and Mrs. Linda Espino are a married couple; Ernesto’s father, José Ortiz Espino, was a bracero from 1944 to roughly 1954; as a bracero, José worked in Arizona, California, Colorado, and Nebraska; during the time that he was away, his family lived in México, Distrito Federal; when Ernesto was five years old, his father completed his last bracero contract, and shortly thereafter, the family moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, in order to arrange for residency. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ernesto Espino and Mrs. Linda Espino are a married couple that discuss the time during which Ernesto’s father, José Ortiz Espino, was a bracero; José was a bracero from 1944 to roughly 1954; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, California, Colorado, and Nebraska, for several companies such as Southern Pacific Railroad and the Great Western Sugar Company; at the time Ernesto was born, his father was working in the United States as a bracero, and he didn’t meet his son until he was nine months old; Ernesto goes on to discuss his father’s visits home between contracts, and the letters and postcards they received while he was gone; he describes how his father left behind a legacy of hard work and sacrifice that he is proud to inherit; Ernesto and Linda speak about José’s work with the Coors Company after being a bracero, and how he was ultimately able to obtain citizenship in the United States; in addition, Linda discusses stories Ernesto’s mother had told her including when she and José were married, events concerning Ernesto’s siblings, and José’s early life Zimapán, Hidalgo, México. Language A language of the resource eng Relation A related resource Linda Espino Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Son of bracero Title A name given to the resource Ernesto Espino Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Loza, Mireya Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Espino, Linda Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 25:42 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-4:04; Mexican Labor] Ernesto reflects that his father, a Bracero, José Ortiz Espino, had the opportunity to aid the United States when it needed him most. He expresses that being a Bracero was difficult because of racism. Ernesto speaks at length about equality and sacrifice. He states that he is most proud that his parents left him an “inheritance” of self-sacrifice, “giving their lives” to serve the United States. Ernesto is proud to be Mexican. He speaks about the current debate over immigration and Mexican labor. [Mins 4:05-6:39; Ernesto’s Early Life] Ernesto is one of six siblings. Ernesto was not alive when José first became a Bracero, but as a child, he remembers that José would come and go often. He remarks that separation from family is more difficult than hard labor. During José’s term as a Bracero, Ernesto and his family lived in Ciudad de México, Distrito Federal, México. Ernesto was five years old when José ceased to be a Bracero. Afterwards, José and his family moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México in order to legalize their residency. Ernesto is grateful to José for bringing his family to the United States. [Mins 6:40-7:47; José’s Visits Home] Ernesto recalls a lot of tears of joy when José would return home in between contracts. He says that there would be joy not only because of José’s return, but also because he would bring dollars home, bringing more stability to the family. Ernesto remembers that José’s visits were very short. [Mins 7:48-9:35; José’s Places of Work] José worked as a Bracero in Nebraska, and in Fresno, California for Southern Pacific Railroad and somewhere else [Denver, Colorado] for The Great Western Sugar Company. Linda, Ernesto’s wife, remarks that José also had worked in San Francisco, California because she has in her possession a pamphlet that belonged to José about the Golden Gate Bridge. Ernesto remembers that José used to send the family postcards from the United States. [Mins 9:36-13:07; Family Recollections] Linda recounts some events that Ernesto’s mother had told her about Ernesto’s siblings. José did not meet his first-born son until his son was nine months old because he was in the United States on a Bracero contract. José wrote letters and sent money to his family while he was a Bracero. Ernesto’s family did not have a telephone at the time. José was originally from Zimapán, Hidalgo, México but moved to Ciudad de México and met his wife there. José worked for Coors Company for twenty-three years after completing his Bracero work. Ernesto’s mother’s older brother was also a Bracero in Fresno, but did not enjoy the experience. [Mins 13:08-14:42; Legalizing Residency] Ernesto relates that the owner of Coors, Mr. Azer, helped José legalize his residency. Mr. Azer was impressed with the carving work that José had accomplished, so he paid his entrance fee of one thousand dollars and wrote him a letter of recommendation. [Mins 14:43-17:34; José’s Early Life] José’s parents were agricultural workers. His older brother worked in the silver mines in the Mexican state of Hidalgo, but died of a condition related to the lungs. José’s mother did not want José to work in the mines, so she sent him to a relative’s home in Ciudad de México when he was small. He first attended school in Ciudad de México but dropped out because he disliked it. [Mins 17:35-21:31; José’s Marriage] Ernesto’s mother was seventeen or eighteen when she married José. Three months after marrying, José went to the United States as a Bracero. [Mins 21:32-End; Post-Bracero Work] Ernesto’s godfather taught José how to carve wood after he finished his Bracero work. Linda describes his woodwork at length. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Espino_NMAH005 Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Linda Espino creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Loza, Mireya contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Loza, Mireya Espino, Linda Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Mr. Ernesto Espino and Mrs. Linda Espino are a married couple; Ernesto’s father, José Ortiz Espino, was a bracero from 1944 to roughly 1954; as a bracero, José worked in Arizona, California, Colorado, and Nebraska; during the time that he was away, his family lived in México, Distrito Federal; when Ernesto was five years old, his father completed his last bracero contract, and shortly thereafter, the family moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, in order to arrange for residency. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ernesto Espino and Mrs. Linda Espino are a married couple that discuss the time during which Ernesto’s father, José Ortiz Espino, was a bracero; José was a bracero from 1944 to roughly 1954; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, California, Colorado, and Nebraska, for several companies such as Southern Pacific Railroad and the Great Western Sugar Company; at the time Ernesto was born, his father was working in the United States as a bracero, and he didn’t meet his son until he was nine months old; Ernesto goes on to discuss his father’s visits home between contracts, and the letters and postcards they received while he was gone; he describes how his father left behind a legacy of hard work and sacrifice that he is proud to inherit; Ernesto and Linda speak about José’s work with the Coors Company after being a bracero, and how he was ultimately able to obtain citizenship in the United States; in addition, Linda discusses stories Ernesto’s mother had told her including when she and José were married, events concerning Ernesto’s siblings, and José’s early life Zimapán, Hidalgo, México. Language A language of the resource eng Relation A related resource Ernesto Espino Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Daughter-in-law of bracero Title A name given to the resource Linda Espino https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/martinez_nmah006_c520598cb8.mp3 8cd5ceceafd681994c15faea14566ff4 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Chew, Selfa Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Martínez, Jesús Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 38:13 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-4:47; Introduction and Early Life] Jesús Martínez was born April 7, 1932 in San Jacinto, Aguascalientes, México, in the municipality of Rincón de Romos. Jesús describes San Jacinto as an agricultural “pueblito” [small town] with a population of 4,000. His family owned a ranch that grew corn, chili, beans, and wheat. Jesús had a family of nine people [it is unclear as to whether he is referring to a total of nine siblings are a total of nine people in his family]. Jesús’ only living sister currently resides in the Mexican state of Aguascalientes. His brothers currently live in El Paso, Texas. Jesús only attended primary school. Jesús speaks about the San Jacinto community’s attitude toward school. He expresses that agricultural labor took precedence over school and describes attendance as “voluntary.” Jesús learned how to read and write largely through his wife. He explains that after his father died when he was twelve, Jesús had to take on more responsibility and help care for his younger siblings. Jesús began working when he was eight years old. His first job was to clear mesquite from the land before his family farmed it. [Mins 4:48-9:22; Deciding to Become a Bracero] Jesús remembers his neighbors becoming Braceros during the first year of the program which he recalls as 1945. Jesús speaks briefly about the mandatory military service in México. He was asked to present his military card to receive his Bracero contract. Jesús was not married until two years after he became a Bracero. Until he decided to become a Bracero, Jesús had never thought of working in the United States. He decided to become a Bracero to both earn enough money to send as wage for non-family members who helped farm his family’s land, and because his brothers were finally old enough to farm by themselves. Jesús’ family had many animals, including mules and cows. The mules would transport the harvest after it was collected. Jesús states that he thought only of his mother and siblings when he decided to become a Bracero; he never thought of himself. [Mins 9:23-11:38; Requirements to Become a Bracero] The requirements to become a Bracero were that one had to be of age, present his records [it is unclear whether these records are medical records, military records, financial records, etc.], present his birth certificate, and present a letter of recommendation from the presidency of his municipality indicating that he was a person of good repute. Jesús states that neighbors served as witnesses who testified as to the quality of the Bracero’s character. Jesús states that one always had to pass the physical examination in order to receive a contract. During this examination blood was drawn. Afterwards, one had to undress for their body to be examined and “disinfected.” Jesús states that the above process was the most embarrassing requirement of all. [Mins 11:39-14:23; Pre-processing] Jesús explains that he signed up to become a Bracero in his town. The list was authorized by his municipality and would serve as recommendation. When the Braceros arrived at the processing center, they would speak to the officials who would give them an estimate of the length of time they would have to wait in order to be processed. Braceros from Jesús’ town could enlist either through the Mexican state of Aguascalientes or through the Mexican state of Zacatecas, since his town was near the border of both states. Jesús first enlisted as a Bracero in 1952. He explains that each Bracero was issued a number at the processing center that could be as high as 30,000. Those Braceros with high numbers were free to find work in the meantime. Braceros’ numbers would be posted daily in the newspaper so that they would be aware of when they were being called for an interview. [Mins 14:24-16:55; Expectations and Conditions] Jesús states that the “Americans” [growers] expected the Braceros to be honest, responsible workers, and obedient to the mayordomo [field boss]. He remarks that the more respectful and obedient Braceros were, the more “benefits,” such as trust, they received. He states that one had to identify with his work and not his language. Jesús was informed of the meal schedule at his worksite. If a Bracero arrived after the cooks had left, there was no food available. He was informed of how much and how often he would be paid, and of his sleeping arrangements, describing the barrack as “roomy,” containing bunk beds lined up side by side. [Mins 16:56-19:40; Processing] Jesús traveled from Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México via train. In El Paso, [it is unclear as to the method of travel across the border into the United States] they rode by bus to the Río Vista Processing Center. There, they were informed of the general schedule, the time to pick up and return their beds, mealtimes, and times to shower. They were also informed of when the contractor from the state in which they wished to work would be at the processing center. Jesús remarks that a Bracero could wait up to a week at the processing center waiting for a contractor from a particular state. Jesús explains that while he was a Bracero he crossed at many entrance points along the border, including at Mexicali, Baja California, México when he was contracted in Empalme, Sonora, México, in Ciudad Juárez, when he was contracted in Chihuahua, and in Reynosa, Tamaulipas, México when he was contracted in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. He describes the processing centers in the United States as clean with good service. There were times, however, when the Braceros would get on each others nerves. He states that if they were told to do something they could not understand, they would continue doing what they would do in their hometown. Braceros were transported by “special busses,” like Greyhound, to their worksite or by plane if the worksite was far from the processing center. [Mins 19:41-22:24; Processing Continued] Jesús calls the process a “sacrifice” saying that one has to pass through many rounds of interviews. If there was any discrepancy between interviews, one was pushed to the side while another Bracero took his place. He explains that regardless of what time of day or night it was, as soon as the Braceros arrived at Río Vista, they were examined—having blood drawn and their hair checked. Many Braceros would faint when their blood was drawn because they were weak from the sleepless trip. Jesús states that Braceros were able to choose their salary by waiting for contractors from the better-paying states, such as Michigan, Nebraska, Idaho, Colorado, and Montana. Braceros were able to purchase clothes in the United States and keep the clothes with them at the processing center to save for their return to México. [Mins 22:25-25:57; Outline of Places in which Jesús Worked] Jesús worked as a Bracero from 1952 to 1961 continuously, except for the mandatory periods of return to México. As a Bracero, he worked in [the city is unclear], Michigan, Edmore, Michigan, Saginaw, Michigan, Scottsbluff, Nebraska, Coachella, California and Clint, Texas. In Clint, Jesús decided to legalize his family’s residency. From Michigan, Jesús called his brothers who were working in Clint, Texas, to see if there was any way that Jesús could stay in the United States. His brothers talked with the growers in Clint, and Jesús was hired to pick cotton. The farm where Jesús worked grew cotton, alfalfa, chili, wheat, and [it is difficult to hear what other crop was harvested]. There were 45 Braceros who picked cotton. Jesús became the mayordomo [field boss] in Clint, a ranch in Arizona, and a ranch in Ysleta, Texas. He was in charge of all three ranches at the same time. Jesús attended school in Las Cruces, New Mexico to learn about cultivation, explaining that at that time, nut harvests were being sold. [Mins 25:58-28:00; Relationships] Jesús states that he made many friends, saying that upon return to México Braceros were all seen as family because they had “suffered” through the same things. Jesús does not recall that any undocumented workers were hired. Jesús expresses that his relationship with the grower was very strong, stating that he was treated like family. Upon the grower’s death, he left instructions that all the Braceros were to sit at the head table during Mass. Mexican authorities never visited the worksite, but INS officials reviewed workers’ documentation at the beginning of each harvest. Jesús communicated with his family via letters. He only saw them at the end of each contract. [Mins 28:01-31:57; Working and Living Conditions; Food] Jesús worked eight hours a day for six days a week. In Michigan, Jesús worked with beets and then picked blackberries from an orchard. Braceros would eat meals in the dining hall, but were only allowed one serving. Jesús remembers that Fridays were special because chicken was served. Lunch was served at noon, and dinner was served at seven. Braceros paid $1.75 [it is unclear whether this is per day, per meal, etc.] that was deducted from their paycheck. He remembers that sometimes they would be served food that they had never eaten at home, but which they would have to accept. He states that sometimes their meal was insufficient, but that they could not complain because it was the standard meal for all. Jesús describes the barracks as containing several bunk beds. The Braceros would keep their bag beneath the beds and were required to keep their beds neat. Jesús states that the bathrooms were good. The Braceros would turn in their laundry every Saturday or Sunday to be washed. The Braceros had to pay for toiletries. [Mins 31:58-36:32; Wage] Jesús speaks about caring for large peppers and their profit as opposed to pumpkins. Jesús was paid in cash. In some camps he was paid every eight days, and in others he was paid every fifteen days. He would save money from his paychecks and then send it home to México via registered mail. Braceros that were paid by the hour received the same wage. Braceros that were paid by contract were paid according to their particular harvest. Jesús states that he was always paid the correct amount on time. He never had any problems on the job. [Mins 36:33-End; Final Reflections] Jesús hopes that today’s generation understands how much the Braceros suffered, working without food and ill at times. He speaks of the importance of setting a good example for one’s family, of being honest and responsible. He has nine children that all have careers. Jesús says that the Bracero Program introduced him to a different way of life in the United States, and that he wanted that way of life for his children. Jesús recalls that in the Río Grande Valley people crossed the [Río Grande] river with their families dying of hunger. He vowed that his family would not cross by river, but rather would cross [legally] by bridge. He thanks God that his wish was granted. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Martinez_NMAH006 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Jesús Martínez creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Chew, Selfa contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chew, Selfa Martínez, Jesús Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Martínez was born on April 7, 1932, in Rincón de Romos, Aguascalientes, México; as a child, he helped his family with the farming duties, which took precedence over attending school; when he was twelve years old, his father died, which forced him to take on more family responsibilities, including helping to care for his younger siblings; in 1952, he enlisted in the bracero program in order to help support his family; as a bracero he worked with various crops in Arizona, California, Michigan, Nebraska, and Texas; in addition, he became the foreman for three separate farms; he continued working with the program until 1961, and he was ultimately able to arrange legal residency for his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez describes his family and childhood; in 1952, he enlisted in the bracero program in order to help support his family; he provides a detailed explanation of the necessary documentation to become a bracero, including letters of recommendation; in addition, he describes the various contracting procedures, that consisted of long waiting lines, physical exams, collections of blood samples, and delousing, which was the most embarrassing for him; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, California, Michigan, Nebraska, and Texas; he goes on to discuss wages, living and working conditions, treatment, provisions, remittances, and the range of relationships among employees and employers; eventually, he became the foreman for three separate farms, and he attended an agricultural school in Las Cruces, New Mexico, to learn more about cultivating crops; he continued working with the program until 1961, and he was ultimately able to arrange legal residency for his family; he concludes by expressing the importance of working hard and being honest. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Jesús Martínez https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/martinez_nmah007_c1927edb83.mp3 fbd303a4fdc8f03f0f9fd9c1c090d483 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Ley-Alarcón, Karim Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Martínez, Sebastián Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 40:24 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Min 0:00-4:19; Introduction and Schooling] Sebastián Martínez was born on November 16, 1938 in Saragosa, Texas. His father worked briefly on the railroad before moving to Pecos in 1943 where he worked at a car dealership. His father also kept animals at a farm connected to the car dealership. He had a cow and chickens. Sebastián graduated from high school in 1958 and recalls that Pecos was racist in the 1950s. He then graduated from Sul Ross State University in Alpine, Texas with a Bachelors of Science in Education, taught for a few years, and then graduated from the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) in 1971 with a Masters of Analysis of English to Spanish and Spanish to English. Sebastián taught for thirty years, has been involved in politics, and is interested in history. He currently splits his time between his two residences in Pecos and El Paso, Texas. [Mins 4:20-6:59; Memories of Braceros and Segregation] Sebastián and his father worked alongside Braceros in the 1950s, chopping cotton among other things. He states that the Braceros were happy and liked to joke around. He also remarks that when the Braceros went into the city of Pecos, they were “herded” to the east side of Pecos with the other “Mexicans” [Mexicans and Mexican-Americans]. The west side of Pecos was where the “Anglo” [white] population resided. Sebastián states that the Braceros were “badly mistreated” but says that the Braceros stayed in the United States for the opportunity to make money and send it back home. [Mins 7:00-10:09; Living Conditions] There was no processing center in Pecos. Sebastián relates that some growers would buy barracks from the United States Army in which the Braceros would live. He describes the barracks, saying that the Braceros’ living conditions were “rough” from an outside perspective, but that some of the Braceros seemed satisfied with the conditions because they were provided with running water, an out-house, and cooking facilities. The growers kept the housing facilities clean. The number of Braceros in each facility ranged from ten to forty. The Braceros would ride in a bus or truck to work. [Mins 10:10-13:48; Working Conditions] Sebastián does not recall that the growers would ever check documentation. He states that the growers were not concerned with documentation. He also does not recall that any immigration officials ever harassed the Braceros for documentation. Sebastián was about fifteen at the time that he worked with the Braceros and calls himself “streetwise” because as one of ten children he had been working since he was eleven years old. Sebastián was paid fifty cents an hour and guesses that the Braceros were paid about four to five dollars a day. The field boss would usually be a local Mexican-American. Work would be divided according to need and experience. Sebastián recalls that everything was run efficiently. The Braceros would work six days a week and some would volunteer to work Sundays. [Mins 13:49-15:45; Recreation] Sebastián states that most Braceros went to bars and brothels on Saturday nights. He describes the east side of Pecos as a “red light district” on the weekends. He states that on weekends the population of Pecos would swell from 10,000 to 50,000 people as the Braceros would fill the “cantinas” [bars]. He describes how many women would “service the men” [prostitution], becoming rich in the process. [Mins 15:46-18:21; Food] Some growers would form co-op stores from which the Braceros would purchase food. Payment was made in cash or arranged through each grower. Some Braceros bought food from Safeway but all labels were in English. Sebastián recalls that dog food made with real beef and horse meat was very popular among the Braceros until they were informed that it was dog food. Sebastián relates how the local Mexican-Americans would take business away from the co-ops and Safeway by bussing the Braceros from the worksite to their own grocery stores. [Mins 18:22-21:04; Recreation Continued and Segregation Continued] Braceros used irrigation ditches to bathe and swim in. Sebastián explains that they were filled with clean water. The movie theaters in Pecos showed Mexican films and were filled with Braceros every Saturday and Sunday. The theater owners were Mexican-American, as the “Anglo” [white] theaters would show American movies. The Mexican-Americans in Pecos were segregated on their own side of town but held jobs and shopped for clothing on the “Anglo” [white] side of town. Sebastián explains that after the Braceros arrived, Mexican-Americans started opening up their own shops on the Mexican-American side of town, so the Mexican-American community began shopping on the Mexican-American side of town. [Mins 21:05-23:46; Community Relations] Sebastián explains that Pecos resented the Braceros but that the business community knew that they were necessary. The Mexican-American community in Pecos resented the Braceros because they disrupted the “social life,” filling the dance halls. Sebastián does not recall any violence resulting from this resentment but remarks that words were exchanged. Sebastián recalls that there was a lot of inter-marriage between local Mexican-American women and Braceros. The Braceros that married locally remained in Pecos and were not bothered by local law enforcement. Sebastián has many female relatives, including an aunt, two cousins, and his maternal grandmother, that had romantic relationships with Braceros. [Mins 23:47-24:57; Large Pecos Farms and Newspaper Articles] Sebastián recalls that the large farms in Pecos belonged to the Mattox’s, the Armstrong’s, the Dingler’s and the Ivey’s. He believes that some Ivey’s moved to El Paso. Sebastián recommends that articles from The Pecos Enterprise be researched as he remembers that articles relating to the Braceros appeared in that newspaper. [Mins 24:58-26:48; Schooling] Sebastián recalls living “two lives,” one at school where he learned to speak English with a southern accent, and one outside of school. He states that some of the Braceros’ children went to school with the “Anglos” [white] and became acculturated very quickly. Eventually, the school board built more classrooms in the Mexican-American side of town and the Braceros’ children attended school on the Mexican-American side of town. [Mins 26:49-29:32; Community Relations Continued] Sebastián repeats that he does not recall any violence. He describes the Braceros as happy and easy-going. He also states that on the weekends, the “Anglo” [white] population would not go into town. Rather, the white population would gather in homes or private clubs. [Mins 29:33-31:41; Religion] St. Catherine’s Catholic Church catered to the “Anglo” [white] community while Santa Rosa de Lima catered to the “Mexican” [Mexican and Mexican-American] community. Sebastián does not remember many Braceros attending church. Rather, he recalls the evangelical church proselytizing at the farms where the Braceros worked. He recalls an article in Time Magazine about a Catholic priest’s thoughts on this issue. Most growers were Protestant. Sebastián recalls a very small “Anglo” [white] Catholic community in Pecos. He does not recall the Braceros participating in religious holidays. [Mins 31:42-33:43; Understanding of the Term Bracero] Sebastián does not recall any public protests against the Braceros. He understands the term Bracero as originating from the word brasa [ember] connoting individuals who used embers from coal to heat their homes. [Mins 33:44-36:32; Community Relations Continued] Sebastián describes his memories of Braceros as positive. He would socialize with the Braceros after work. Sebastián states that most Braceros did not know what becoming a Bracero would entail. Rather, they only knew that they were supposed to work. After arriving in Pecos, Sebastián explains that many found it to be similar to what they had known and found ways to stay in Pecos. Sebastián does not recall ever hearing that a grower was eager to send a Bracero back to México. He repeats that no one ever thought of Braceros as “illegal,” even after their term was through. [Mins 36:33-End; Final Thoughts] Sebastián believes that the “territory” [the portion of the United States which once belonged to México] is peacefully becoming mestizo again through intermarriage, etc. He speaks briefly about the Iraq war. Sebastián states that it is logistically impossible for the United States to bring temporary workers into the country and ship all of them back at the end of their term. He speaks briefly about his grandfather who was a mule trader from México who would make trades in Fort Davis, Texas. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Martinez_NMAH007 Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Sebastián Martínez creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Alacon, Karim-Ley contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ley-Alarcón, Karim Martínez, Sebastián Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Sebastián Martínez was born on November 16, 1938, in Saragosa, Texas; as a child he and his family moved to Pecos, Texas; during the fifties, when he was roughly fourteen or fifteen years old, he began working with his father alongside braceros, chopping cotton and other such field duties; after graduating from high school, he went on to receive a bachelor’s degree from Sul Ross State University and a master’s degree from the University of Texas at El Paso. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez briefly discusses his family; when he was roughly fourteen or fifteen years old, he began working with his father alongside braceros, chopping cotton and other such field duties; he goes on to discuss his experiences working with braceros, and he gives an account of their living and working conditions, provisions, recreational activities, religion, and their general dispositions; in addition, he explains the relationships between the braceros and the surrounding community in Pecos, Texas, which was largely segregated; several of his female relatives, however, did have romantic relationships with braceros; he also speaks about the children of braceros going to school in Pecos and the subsequent process of assimilation; after graduating from high school, Sebastián went on to receive a bachelor’s degree from Sul Ross State University and a master’s degree from the University of Texas at El Paso. Language A language of the resource eng Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Working with his father alongside braceros Title A name given to the resource Sebastián Martínez https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/ponce_nmah008_159a84adfa.mp3 7ac799bf943add3050edfb67eb03a0db Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Ley-Alarcón, Karim Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Ponce, Héctor Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 32:09 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-2:33; Introduction] Héctor Ponce was born on April 1, 1933 in Valle Zaragoza, Chihuahua, México. His parents worked in agriculture. He attended school until the fifth grade. Héctor received his contract in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México. Before he was contracted he worked in agriculture in Valle Zaragoza and was unmarried. [Mins 2:34-3:44; The United States] Héctor remarks that he liked the way that the United States treated people. He says that his life was better in the United States because he and his father had no money in México. He has worked most of his life in the United States. [Mins 3:45-9:58; Bracero Work] Héctor states that his bosses cared greatly for him and would tell him that they did not want him to return to México after his contract was finished. Héctor worked for a group of brothers in [Perry,] Michigan dispensing coal for heaters. Before that, he had picked peppers in North Platte, North Dakota. He describes his life as a Bracero as very good. Héctor was paid weekly. Héctor’s growers gave him a house to live in, took him out to eat, invited him to their homes, and wanted to legalize his residency so that he could work for them permanently [unclear whether his residency was actually legalized at that time]. There was hardly any Spanish spoken in Michigan. Héctor worked for the brothers in Perry until he “deserted them” and went to live with a woman in Saginaw, Michigan where he worked for Chevrolet. Héctor also worked as a Bracero in Nebraska. He explains that the growers in Nebraska were intent on finding him a girlfriend to live with, but at the end of his contract he returned to México to comply with the law. [Mins 9:59-11:04; Food and Recreation] The Braceros would cook communally, each making a different part of the meal. Héctor does not remember any recreational activities. He first became familiar with the television in Michigan. [Mins 11:05-13:04; Documentation] Héctor states that growers also hired undocumented workers, but that the Braceros had no negative feelings toward them. He repeats that his bosses in Perry loved him very much. He states that the authorities never entered the worksites to look over documentation. [Mins 13:05-15:34; Working Conditions] Héctor would communicate with his family in México by writing letters, but did not write often. His family never came to visit him. Héctor remarks that the cold never bothered him because he had good heaters. He would work six days a week and have Sunday free. On Sundays, the bosses would take Héctor to church and then out to eat. Héctor would work about six or seven hours a day. He remembers that the bosses would feed him eggs and toast in the morning. [Mins 15:35-16:34; Dating] Héctor’s bosses would bring young American women by the house to set him up on dates. Héctor and the young American women would go to movies, but he was not able to communicate with them since he did not know English and they did not know Spanish. He relates that he was treated very well at both the movie theater and on the street. [Mins 16:35-18:50; Living Conditions] Héctor states that his living arrangements were in good condition since everything was brand new. The bathrooms had drains in them. His bosses’ wives would wash his clothes for him. Héctor did not buy a single thing. His bosses provided him with towels, soap, and toothbrushes, among other things. His bosses also employed a teacher from Detroit, Michigan to teach Héctor English at night. [Mins 18:51-21:05; Payment] Héctor worked with one other man [unclear whether this is a Bracero or not] who also spoke Spanish. His bosses wanted Héctor to work in their store permanently. Héctor was paid seventy dollars a week in cash. He would send a small amount to his mother through the mail and keep the rest for himself. Héctor explains that after the other Braceros’ contracts were through, his bosses kept him to work for them. He relates that his payment was always correct and on time. During Christmas, Héctor would receive a small bonus, and would be invited to the bosses’ party. Héctor says that he never had any problems while he was working there. [Mins 21:06-23:09; Community Relations] Héctor states that he was very much appreciated in Perry, and that the sheriff would always say hello to him. He describes eating donuts and drinking coffee with the Americans. Héctor says that he never had any problems due to racism. He recalls that he never even became ill while in Perry. He remembers driving in circles on the iced-over lakes during the cold winters. [Mins 23:10-24:57; Friends] Héctor describes the Spanish-speaking man who worked with him in Perry. He was married and lived in a trailer. He would invite Héctor over for dinner and take him to the lakes. The boat from Perry to Lansing, Michigan cost fifty-five cents. Héctor relates that in 1953 or 1954 Lansing only had one Mexican restaurant. [Mins 24:58-26:42; Chevrolet and INS] Héctor speaks about working for Chevrolet. Due to his work there, he now receives social security. There were many Mexicans that worked at Chevrolet. Héctor remarks that Spanish music was hardly ever heard in Saginaw. Eventually, the INS told Héctor that if he returned voluntarily to México his undocumented status would not be recorded. Héctor returned to México and legalized his residency in the United States. [Mins 26:43-28:11; Nebraska] Héctor states that he was treated very well in Nebraska. There, he worked with beets. He was paid one dollar a day. [Mins 28:12-29:48; American Citizenship and California] Héctor became an American citizen two or three years before this interview. He decided to become a citizen because he liked the United States. He is currently receiving a pension from the United States government. Today, Héctor lives in Socorro, Texas. Héctor worked in cementing and tarring for twenty years in California. During that time he was part of a labor union. The union regularly sends him checks. [Mins 29:49-End; Final Reflections] Héctor left a house in California to his two children. Héctor feels proud to have been a Bracero, saying that it was in the United States that he learned how to work. He remarks that being a Bracero changed his whole life. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Ponce_NMAH008 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Héctor Ponce creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Ley-Alarcón, Karim contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ley-Alarcón, Karim Ponce, Héctor Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Héctor Ponce was born on April 1, 1933, in Valle de Zaragoza, Chihuahua, México; both of his parents worked in agriculture; he was formally educated through the fifth grade; sometime later, he traveled to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, where he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in the fields of Nebraska and North Dakota, and he dispensed coal for heaters in Michigan; independent of the program, he also worked for Chevrolet while in Michigan; he later legalized his residency, and he ultimately became a United States citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ponce very briefly discusses his family and childhood; as a bracero he picked beets in Nebraska, peppers in North Dakota, and dispensed coal for heaters in Michigan; overall, he had great working relationships with his employers; while in Michigan, he was employed by a group of brothers who treated him extremely well; they often invited him into their home, and they offered to help arrange for his residency in the hopes that he would stay to work there permanently; he also relates a story about how his employer in Nebraska was intent on finding him a girlfriend; he goes on to discuss wages, living and working conditions, provisions, language barriers, communication with his family, and community attitudes toward him and other workers; in addition, he describes his experience with immigration personnel; independent of the program, he also worked for Chevrolet while in Michigan; he concludes by commenting on his fondness for the United States and how working with the bracero program changed his life. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Héctor Ponce https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/ponce_nmah009_ceb4dde44a.mp3 2f2e75b36b0341644e0f82ba67108848 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Mena, Violeta Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Ponce, Saúl Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 24:13 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-2:25; Introduction] Saúl Ponce was born in Valle Zaragoza, Chihuahua, México on October 4, 1928. His father worked in agriculture. Saúl is one of five children. He did not attend much school. [Mins 2:26-4:14; Contracting and Processing] Saúl remembers that other men from Valle Zaragoza were contracted as Braceros as well. Saúl’s brother was a Bracero. Saúl was single at the time of contracting. He was transported from Valle Zaragoza to the contracting center in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Afterwards, he was taken to the Río Vista Processing Center in El Paso, Texas. There, he presented documents, and he and the other Braceros were taken by plane to their worksites. [Mins 4:15-7:48; Working and Living Conditions] Saúl worked with beets in Harding, Montana. He does not remember how much he was paid. Saúl and the other Braceros were taken to a “lone” house which was equipped with a stove and bathrooms. There were about ten Braceros per housing facility. Saúl remembers waking up at six in the morning and finishing work at about five in the evening. He would write letters to his parents saying that he was comfortable and working hard. His father would usually write him back. He would also regularly send money orders to his parents. Saúl states that the money orders were always reliable. Saúl does not remember any recreational activities. [Mins 7:49-10:04; Marriage and Legalizing Residency] After Saúl married, he received another Bracero contract. He would regularly write to his wife who resided in Valle Zaragoza. Eventually, Saúl legalized his own, his wife’s, and his children’s residency. He does not remember the United States city that they moved to after legalizing their residency. [Mins 10:05-13:21; Working Conditions Continued] Saúl does not remember how much he was paid. He remarks that during their free time he and the other Braceros would talk about work. He does not remember the names of the other cities in which he worked as a Bracero. Saúl worked with beets, picked cotton, and cleaned corn. He also milked the grower’s cows and in turn was given milk for free. [Mins 13:22-15:21; Living Conditions Continued] Saúl remembers that the growers would take the Braceros to buy food. Each group of Braceros, consisting of five Braceros each, would buy enough food to feed all five members of the group. Saúl did not have to pay rent for his housing as a Bracero. He resided with nine other men from the Mexican state of Chihuahua, three or four of which were from Valle Zaragoza. [Mins 15:22-16:57; Deciding to Become a Bracero] Saúl became a Bracero for the opportunity to earn more money. He remarks that his parents were poor and that it rained little in Valle Zaragoza. Saúl and his brother were contracted together and worked and lived in Harding together. [Mins 16:58-21:23; Wife’s Living Conditions] Saúl missed his wife while he was working in the United States, but he expresses that she understood why he was working far away. Saúl would send his wife money orders every eight days to help with the finances, but his wife also ran an informal seamstress business in which she sewed clothes for the community. Saúl remembers asking other Braceros to write his letters because he himself did not know how to write very well. He would pay them in cash or through favors. [Mins 21:24-22:33; Community Tensions] Saúl recalls an incident in which his brother was “taken” by men unassociated with the Bracero program. Saúl followed them with a knife to defend his brother. He remarks, however, that there were no tensions between other groups in the community and the Braceros, or among the Braceros themselves. [Mins 22:34-End; Discontinuation of the Bracero Program] After Saúl’s last contract, he wanted to apply for another contract, but the Bracero Program had been discontinued. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Ponce_NMAH009 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Saúl Ponce creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Mena, Violeta contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mena, Violeta Ponce, Saúl Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Saúl Ponce was born on October 4, 1928, in Valle de Zaragoza, Chihuahua, México; he had four siblings, and his brother was also a bracero; from his hometown in Valle de Zaragoza, he was transported to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México to be contracted as a bracero; he enlisted in the hopes of helping his family financially; as a bracero, he worked in Montana, picking beets and cotton, cleaning corn, and milking cows; he was ultimately able to legalize residency for himself, his wife, and his children. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ponce very briefly discusses his family and childhood; as a young man, he decided to enlist in the bracero program in order to help his family financially; from his hometown in Valle de Zaragoza, Chihuahua, México, he was transported to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, where he obtained his first bracero contract; he was then transferred to Rio Vista, a processing center in Socorro, Texas, and then taken to his worksite by plane; as a bracero, he worked in Montana, picking beets and cotton, cleaning corn, and milking cows; he and his brother were fortunate enough to live and work together while in Montana; there was an incident in which his brother was harassed by people not associated with program, but there were no other apparent tensions; he goes on to describe his living and working conditions, provisions, and remittances; because he could not read or write very well, he paid people, with money or favors, to write letters to his wife; she made money at home in México as a seamstress; he was ultimately able to legalize residency for himself, his wife, and his children Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Saúl Ponce https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/padilla_rubio_nmah010_9f2849f1e3.mp3 f6ab28f54f4f0323e230ecb9565cfb4e Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Rosas, Ana Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Padilla Rubio, Patricio Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 52:25 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-4:53; Introduction and Early Life] Patricio Padilla Rubio was born March 17, 1926 in Cuchillo Parado, Chihuahua, México. He is the youngest of six brothers. His father had a ranch with cows in which his older brothers would work from 8a.m. to about 4 or 5p.m. Patricio would bring them their lunch at midday. Patricio remembers that his mother used to defend him against his brothers. His father was the mayordomo [field boss] for an American ranch named the Alamo in Presidio, Texas. Patricio’s father would transport Mexican workers to the ranch. His father had a passport to enter the United States. He would enter the United States to pay the workers, check up on them, and then return to México. Patricio was about eight years old at the time. [Mins 4:54-7:14; First Contract – Marfa, Texas] Patricio’s first Bracero contract was a three month position working for a livestock ranch named La Cuerva in Marfa, Texas. Patricio’s friends urged him to apply to become a Bracero when he was eighteen years old. He decided to apply because he wanted to establish a home in México and make more money for his girlfriend. [Mins 7:15-10:36; Working and Living Conditions] Patricio missed his family while he was in the United States, but kept working to help them monetarily. He wrote to his family monthly. Patricio describes his American boss, Bill Allens, as a good boss who treated the Braceros well. Patricio drove the truck on the ranch and cured animals. After Patricio’s first contract, he returned to México, married, and had children. He got his second Bracero contract in 1953. [Mins 10:37-12:43; Mexican Military Service] Patricio served in the Mexican Army in 1945 and 1946 in Irapuato, Guanajuato, México. He describes a mutual relationship between Mexican and American troops aiding each other in the use of weaponry and war tactics. He mentions Escuadrón 201 [a Mexican fighter squadron stationed in the Philippines that aided the ally effort in 1945]. Patricio was given housing, food, and clothes through the Army. [Mins 12:44-15:56; Second Contract – Dexter, New Mexico] Patricio’s second contract in 1953 was in Roswell, New Mexico. He worked in a nearby town named Dexter, New Mexico for three months as the official weight-taker, reporting to the grower how much each Bracero had picked during the day. Patricio states that he liked his experience. The American grower, Thomas, had hand-picked thirty-five Braceros from the Roswell Association. Patricio picked cotton and weighed everyone’s pickings at the end of the day. Patricio’s wage was higher than the other Braceros’. He describes the Braceros from Torreón, Coahuila, México as good cotton pickers. [Mins 15:57-18:38; Third Contract – Pecos, Texas and Processing] After his second contract, Patricio returned to México and was re-contracted to work in Pecos, Texas. Patricio enjoyed his experience working for a ranch named The Alamo in Pecos that grew yellow melons and lettuce among other things. The grower also had a ranch in Fort Stockton, Texas named The Watermelon that grew watermelons. Patricio learned how to operate a tractor to assist him in his work. Patricio was processed in the Río Vista Processing Center in El Paso, Texas. He describes being examined and states that he and other Braceros were nervous during the process. [Mins 18:39-21:32; Recreation] Patricio completed three contracts of eighteen months each in Pecos. Most Braceros at the worksite were from Ojinaga, Chihuahua, México. Patricio describes a boxing match in 1953 in which a Mexican fighter, [Raúl] Ratón Macias, beat an American fighter in Las Vegas, Nevada. About sixty Braceros were crowded in the barracks watching the fight on the television. Patricio describes feeling very proud that [Raúl] Ratón Macias won the fight. Patricio would send the greater part of his earnings home every fifteen days. Every Sunday, a bus would arrive to take him and other Braceros to church. The services were in Spanish. Patricio is an Evangelical Christian. [Mins 21:33-24:27; Family] Patricio’s sons currently live in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, in Texas [difficult to hear which city], and in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México. He speaks briefly about his family’s Christianity. Patricio describes buying gifts from the United States for his children. Patricio lived with his family in Ojinaga before moving to Ciudad Juárez in 1965 so that his children could attend better schools. He speaks briefly about his children’s current occupations. [Mins 24:28-27:21; Contracting and Legalizing Residency] Patricio relates that two or three days before the end of the Braceros’ contracts, a bus would take them to renew their contracts. After Patricio’s third contract, in 1959, he received another contract of three months to work on a different farm in Pecos for an American grower. Patricio legalized his residency [unclear as to what year this occurred] stating that the requirements of the era were a birth certificate and a voting card. He believes that the INS gives preference to those who are from the Mexican state of Chihuahua. He states that when he legalized his papers they took him from Chihuahua to the Río Vista Processing Center in El Paso and that he had recommendations from growers in the United States. From there, they would send him and many others to Pecos. [Mins 27:22-29:29; Field Work] Patricio describes how at the beginning of the contract the grower would show him how to do the required work in the fields. The fields were about a mile and a half long. He describes the process of caring for the fields. Braceros were sometimes lent out to other farms for about a week at a time. [Mins 29:30-36:11; Post-Bracero Work] After his Bracero work in 1960, Patricio began to sell clothes in Ciudad Juárez. He would pick up articles of clothing from Moroleon, Guanajuato, México and take a train back to Ciudad Juárez to sell them. Patricio, as supervisor, had five sellers that worked for him selling the clothing in the neighborhoods of Ciudad Juárez. Many female maquiladora workers would purchase clothing from him. Patricio’s business sold clothing in Ciudad Juárez’ neighborhoods of Anapra, Colonia Insurgentes, and Altavista. Patricio also worked as a butler in large homes. Today, he receives a pension from the Mexican government and does not work. Patricio speaks briefly about his son who resides in Midland, Texas. Patricio speaks about missing his family while he was in the United States as a Bracero. After he completed his last Bracero contract, Patricio bought some property in Ciudad Juárez. [Mins 36:12-41:12; Religion Continued] Patricio talks about his own and his children’s Christianity. [Mins 41:13-43:33; Work Ethic] Patricio speaks about his desire to please the growers by working hard as a Bracero. He states that he would like this interview to reflect his labor as a Bracero for his nieces/nephews, grandchildren, and sons/daughters. [Mins 43:34-46:50; Daily Life and Recreation] Patricio speaks about fulfilling the roles of both a man and a woman while he was a Bracero in that he would have to cook for himself and darn clothing. He remembers cooking corn tortillas, quesadillas, ham and eggs, ham and beans, and salsas. The Braceros would be transported to stores. He remembers going to the movie theater to watch Pedro Infante, Jorge Negrete, “El Chicote” [Armando Soto la Marina], María Félix, Lola Beltrán, Elsa Aguirre, and other actors. [Mins 46:51-49:17; Daily Life Continued] Patricio states that there was no racism among the townspeople and expresses that relations were friendly. Patricio states that in the barracks there were up to five beds stacked on top of each other. He speaks briefly about the similarities between army life and Bracero life. [Mins 49:18-End; Family Continued] Patricio states that during the time he was a Bracero, his wife used to tell him that each month he was away seemed very long. Patricio would visit Ojinaga, his home at the time, every month or sometimes every fifteen days. Patricio states that although he legalized his residency in the United States, he always chose to live in México. He speaks briefly about his children. Patricio currently has a passport to enter the United States to visit his two children who reside there. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Padilla_Rubio_NMAH010 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Patricio Padilla Rubio creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Rosas, Ana contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rosas, Ana Padilla Rubio, Patricio Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Patricio Padilla Rubio was born March 17, 1926, in Cuchillo Parado, Chihuahua, México; he is the youngest of six brothers; when he was a child, his father was the foreman for a ranch in Presidio, Texas, and he would often travel between Texas and México; Patricio enrolled in the bracero program when he was eighteen years old; as a bracero, he worked in New Mexico and Texas, where his duties ranged from weighing cotton to caring for animals and crops; he completed his last contract in 1960; although he did legalize his residency, he chose to permanently reside in México. Summary of Interview: Mr. Padilla briefly describes his family and childhood; he speaks about his father’s job as a foreman for a ranch in Presidio, Texas, and how he would often travel between Texas and México; when Patricio was eighteen, he enrolled in the bracero program; his first contract took him to a ranch in Marfa, Texas, where he cared for livestock; upon his return to México, he married and subsequently had children; his second contract took him to Dexter, New Mexico, where he weighed cotton; the following contracts took him to work at different ranches in Pecos, Texas, where he learned to drive a tractor; he goes on to discuss his various duties as a bracero, working and living conditions, contract renewals and extensions, treatment, provisions, recreational activities, and remittances; after his last contract in 1960, he bought land in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, which is where he later lived and worked; although he did legalize his residency, he chose to permanently reside in México. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Patricio Padilla Rubio https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/ramirez_nmah011_3130cc0c32.mp3 ff5898ca8d0f6a0b33aff5c29fc26882 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Chew, Selfa Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Ramírez, Manuel Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 35:30 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-3:28; Introduction and Early Life] Manuel has eleven brothers and sisters and his father was a Bracero. Manuel’s father was born in 1912 in Guanaceví, Durango, México, as one of two children. He attended school until the second or third grade. When Manuel’s father became a Bracero, he was married and had five children. Manuel was one month old at the time. Manuel’s grandfather was an official who accompanied Pancho Villa, so Manuel’s father had to work in the family’s butcher shop when he was eight or nine years old. [Mins 3:29-6:36; Decision to Become a Bracero] When Manuel’s father became a Bracero, Manuel and his family lived in Villa Matamoros, Chihuahua, México, called [San Isidro de] Las Cuevas, Chihuahua, México at that time. Manuel remembers hearing his father refer to the Bracero Program as la Bracereada. Before he joined the Bracero Program, according to Manuel, his father had lost his job at the butcher shop because he lacked knowledge about the way in which it operated. Thus, Manuel’s father became involved in agricultural labor. Manuel’s father had a cousin in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México who wrote to him about the Bracero Program, saying that he had signed up. Manuel’s father then traveled to Ciudad Juárez to sign up as well. Manuel remarks that at the time his father signed up to become a Bracero, his means were very low. Manuel states that he believes that it was hard for his mother to be left alone with five children in México, worrying about her husband’s well-being in the United States. [Mins 6:37-8:04; Processing] Manuel recalls his father telling him about the “humiliations” he underwent each time he was contracted. Manuel states that his father and other Braceros were transported on a cargo truck packed with Braceros to Ciudad Juárez where they were taken over the [United States-México] bridge. They were disrobed, bathed, and sprayed with a powder [DDT] to rid them of lice. Manuel remarks that his father recalled the episode with much sadness. [Mins 8:05-10:10; Perceptions of the United States] Manuel believes that his father enlisted in the Bracero Program in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México in 1946. Manuel relates that the Braceros’ “steady goal” was to make money in the United States. He remarks that they had an illusion of the United States as a “goldmine.” [Mins 10:11-12:52; Methods of Travel] Manuel’s father and other Braceros traveled by bus from [San Isidro de] Las Cuevas to Chihuahua, and by train from Chihuahua to Ciudad Juárez. From Ciudad Juárez they were taken by caravan over the [United States-México] bridge and dropped off at the El Paso County Coliseum in El Paso, Texas to be “recruited” by growers. Manuel’s father told him that he was once transported from El Paso to Colorado by plane. Manuel’s father was very frightened because the light aircraft was making noises as if it was about to break. After that experience, Manuel’s father always refused to travel by plane. [Mins 12:53-16:38; Processing Continued] Manuel’s father described the processing centers as “unhygienic,” saying that some men smelled. Manuel conjectures on the men’s sleeping practices while at the processing centers. Manuel is not aware of what requirement were necessary for his father to gain a Bracero contract except for a medical exam which he believes included a vaccination. Manuel does not believe that his father had any say as to which worksite he was assigned, the length of his contract, or how much he was paid. Between contracts, Manuel’s father worked in construction in México. [Mins 16:39-21:25; Ysleta, Texas] Manuel’s father was a Bracero from 1946 to 1958, returning to México after each contract. He worked in both Colorado and Ysleta, Texas. In Ysleta, Manuel’s father and twenty other Braceros picked cotton and collected eggs. Manuel remembers admiring a Bracero who worked with his father in Ysleta because of his agility and speed. Manuel’s father became lasting friends with a fellow Bracero named Candelario [Manuel does not remember his surnames]. [Mins 21:26-24:29; Manuel’s Labor and Deportation] Manuel worked with his father in Ysleta, Texas, collecting eggs. He was eleven years old at the time, did not have any legal documentation, and was paid in cash. He remembers that the Braceros would always give him little bits of bread and/or cookies. Manuel describes the mayordomo [field boss] as “hostile” and “dry,” explaining that he often yelled at the Braceros. Manuel never heard the mayordomo yell at his father. Manuel was deported by INS while he was working in Ysleta. They transported him [across the Ysleta-Zaragoza Bridge] to Colonia Waterfill, Chihuahua, México. Manuel was penniless, and was informed by INS that if he was detained again at the worksite, he would be incarcerated. [Mins 24:30-25:29; Communication with Family] Manuel states that there was no contact between his father and his family while his father was a Bracero, but then states that every fifteen days his father would travel to Ciudad Juárez [it is unclear whether he included this information because his family resided in Ciudad Juárez at the time]. [Mins 25:30-End; Father’s Illness] Manuel relates that one Saturday in 1958 some Braceros in Ysleta had gone drinking in Colonia Waterfill, returned to their living quarters, turned on the heater, and were discovered dead Sunday morning [Manuel seems to imply that they died from carbon monoxide poisoning]. Manuel’s father was ordered to clean the living quarters the following Monday and became grievously ill. He was picked up by the Red Cross, transported to Providence Memorial Hospital in El Paso, and deported upon release. While at the hospital, one and a half of his lungs were removed. Manuel describes the walls of the living quarters as missing sheetrock. The walls were not painted with oil-based paint, but rather were whitewashed with large brushes with lime-based paint. He describes at length the effect his father’s illness had on his family, including what he claims was the cause of the death of his sister, the family’s sudden lack of wage, and his parent’s struggle for treatment. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Ramirez_NMAH011 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Manuel Ramírez creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Chew, Selfa contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chew, Selfa Ramírez, Manuel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Manuel Ramírez was born on September 20, 1945, in Villa Matamoros, Chihuahua, México; he has eleven brothers and sisters; his father, Adolfo Ramírez Bañuelos, enlisted in the bracero program in 1946; as a bracero, he worked in Colorado and Texas; when Manuel was eleven years old, he worked with his father in Texas, but he was eventually deported; in 1958, Adolfo became seriously ill as a result of his duties, and he was hospitalized; shortly thereafter, he was also deported. Summary of Interview: Manuel Ramírez discusses his father, Adolfo Ramírez Bañuelos, and his perceptions of the United States that led to his decision to become a bracero; at the time, Adolfo was married and had five children; in 1946, he traveled to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, to enlist in the bracero program; he was then transported by train to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, and then by caravan to the county coliseum in El Paso, Texas, where ranchers chose their workers; on one occasion, he was transferred by plane from El Paso to Colorado; Manuel goes on to describe the various difficulties and humiliations his father underwent with each contract, including being deloused; as a bracero, Adolfo worked in Colorado and Texas; when Manuel was eleven years old, he worked with his father in Ysleta, Texas, and was paid in cash, because he was undocumented; he was eventually deported and warned that the next time, he would be incarcerated; in 1958, while working in Ysleta, Adolfo had to clean out a room where a group of braceros had died the night before due to carbon monoxide poisoning; as a result he became seriously ill, and he was hospitalized; shortly thereafter, he was also deported. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Manuel Ramírez https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/burrola_ruiz_nmah012_788c3b58fb.mp3 9eb955df22c74f448a9f76aa77c84e47 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Acosta, Anais Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Burrola Ruiz, Hipólito Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 35:39 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-3:08; Introduction] Hipólito Burrola Ruíz was born on November 25, 1936 in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México on a ranch named El Aguaje which is located on the eastern side of the Ejido la Haciendita neighborhood. His father worked in agriculture and his mother stayed at home. He is one of fourteen children. He speaks about his grandparents’ nomadic agricultural practices. Hipólito has six children and many grandchildren. [Mins 3:09-6:50; Early Life] Hipólito recounts two scenes from his childhood that he remembers. He began helping his uncles in the field when he was seven years old. He would help them during his breaks from school. When he was twelve years old he worked at a mine collecting manganese. Hipólito recalls a rough period around 1954 when there were no more good beans. He states that he and his family became accustomed to poverty, understanding that if there was nothing to eat it would have to be tolerated. Hipólito quit school when he was twelve in order to help his father monetarily. He found work at a creamery feeding pigs whey and milking cows. He worked there until he was nineteen. He was paid twenty pesos [Mexican currency] a week. Hipólito married in 1958. [Mins 6:51-9:57; Processing] Hipólito describes how some Braceros used to cut their hands with the intention of making calluses so that they would be selected to become a Bracero. Calluses were a requirement to be selected. In 1959, Hipólito became a Bracero, excited by all of the talk around town. He states that he did not receive many calluses from milking cows, but that his hands still looked as if they were the hands of a worker. He describes how he entered the United States for the first time using his father-in-law’s identification card. The contracting center was in Chihuahua. Some Braceros waited for months in line to be interviewed. He describes an incident in which one Bracero went crazy because he had been waiting for so long. There was security while the Braceros were waiting. Hipólito entered quickly the first time, but had to wait a little while the rest of the times. [Mins 9:58-11:03; Last Contract—O’Brien, Texas] The last time he was contracted, Hipólito did not have to wait long as it was December. He expected to be sent to California but instead was sent to O’Brien, Texas to pick cotton via Eagle Pass, Texas. He describes how he suffered there with the freezing weather. While he was in O’Brien, his daughter was born ill. He received letters from his mother-in-law documenting her condition, and he returned home to México without money. His daughter was in the hospital for five months and Hipólito had to take whatever work he could find. Much later, he moved to Ciudad Juárez. [Mins 11:04-16:31; Processing Continued] The requirements to become a Bracero were the military record and birth certificate. After a Bracero was contracted, he was undressed and placed in a line. An American man, who Hipólito thinks was a doctor, examined each Bracero’s anus. If a Bracero had hemorrhoids, he was not allowed to continue being processed. The Braceros that passed the examination were transported via train to the Río Vista Processing Center in El Paso, Texas for more examinations. At the United States-México border, the Braceros were sprayed with DDT. Hipólito describes the bad smells in the contracting centers because Braceros were without bathrooms and showers and had traveled long distances. He remembers that they would urinate in corners for lack of a bathroom. He describes an incident in which his hat was stolen while he was being examined. He describes where Río Vista is. At Río Vista there were bunk beds stacked four beds high. The room was about thirty meters long. Braceros arrived at all hours of the night. He remarks on the types of rude comments that occurred among the Braceros at night. Hipólito does not remember showering at Río Vista. In the cafeteria at Río Vista, there were large tubs of beans with bacon and ham. The Braceros were served by the cooks. They were also served a juice that acted as a purgative in order that their bodies be completely clean upon arrival at the worksite. In another processing center, Hipólito explains that the cafeteria was very pretty and elegant with plates that were partitioned. [Mins 16:32-19:59; Pecos, Texas] Hipólito describes how Braceros were tricked and forced to accept contract work in Pecos, Texas. Calling it “Pecos mentado” [fucking Pecos], he explains that the Braceros were scared of Pecos because as pickers, it paid little and had a poor harvest as the cotton was not of high quality. Hipólito’s first contract was picking cotton in Pecos. He explains how unending picking cotton seems the first time one does it. One hundred pounds of cotton cost $1.05 or $1.50, and the Braceros would pick between two hundred and four hundred pounds of cotton per day. He states that it was tiring work because they were kneeling down all day. He describes working in a ranch in Pecos where there were many snakes. [Mins 20:00-21:53; Living Conditions] In Pecos, more than 150 Braceros lived together in the barracks. It was a long room containing many beds and stoves. Beneath each bed was a box of clothes and their locked luggage. Each Bracero cooked for himself. Hipólito had a stove next to his bed, and he and another Bracero cooked together. They would eat beans, potatoes, sopa [pasta dish], and eggs, among other things. In O’Brien, Hipólito lived in a small apartment with three other Braceros. There were four bunk beds stacked on top of each other and Hipólito was in the top bunk. He recalls how cold it used to get at night, explaining the measures he would take to deal with the cold. [Mins 21:54-25:45; Working Conditions] Hipólito explains how some Braceros used to pick cotton when the dew had not yet dried even though they were not allowed to, in order to yield more profit from the weight of the bag. An official weight-taker was appointed to record how much each Bracero picked daily, but Hipólito expresses that there may have been mis-weighed harvests. Hipólito was paid every eight days in cash and then transported to the supermarket. He would send the rest of the money home to his wife via money order. Hipólito explains how he would always have to ask another Bracero to fill out the money order form for him, but states that the money did always arrive in México. Hipólito’s first two contracts were for three months each, but his contract in O’Brien was for a longer period of time. He describes how he always intended to get a job in a creamery in the United States but never did. [Mins 25:46-26:59; Returning to México After Contracts] When their contracts were completed, the Braceros were returned to Río Vista via bus. Once there, they received a bag of food containing some sandwiches and drinks. They were then transported to the United States-México border. Each Bracero was then on his own to travel home. Hipólito would always take a bus from the border to Chihuahua. When he returned to Chihuahua, his life had not improved much economically. He explains that cotton is not the most lucrative harvest. He states that other Braceros that had different types of contracts received more money and returned home with extra money. Hipólito would milk cows while he was in México between contracts. [Mins 27:00-28:05; Reflections] Hipólito feels proud to have been a Bracero because he fought and suffered for his family. [Mins 28:06-29:14; Missing Home and Food] Hipólito most missed his wife’s chili when he was in the United States. As Braceros, they would make potatoes, roasted and refried beans, and eggs. Hipólito also missed his house and his wife. [Mins 29:15-30:08; Recreation] On Saturdays the Braceros would buy groceries, and on Sundays they would wash their clothes and shave. Some Braceros would travel from worksite to worksite to play cards on Sundays. Hipólito never played cards, expressing his disdain for gambling. [Mins 30:09-33:32; Memories] Hipólito recounts a time when he was sick with dysentery as a Bracero. He told his superior that he did not feel well and he was given Pepto Bismol. He was sick for a while. Hipólito recalls an incident in which a mouse was stuck in the water faucet, and states that afterwards, no Braceros wanted to drink water from the faucet. Hipólito recalls that the time that the bus that took them to the grocery store broke down he and another Bracero fixed it. [Mins 33:33-End; Reflections Continued] Hipólito states that the Bracero Program was a good thing because he knows Braceros that drove tractors who were able to buy land in Ciudad Camargo, Chihuahua, México, and Namiquipa, Chihuahua México to set up their own farms. He speaks about an ongoing legal dispute over a piece of land he owns. Hipólito’s children and grandchildren are United States citizens. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Burrola_Ruiz_NMAH012 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Hipólito Burrola Ruiz creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Acosta, Anais contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Acosta, Anais Burrola Ruiz, Hipólito Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Hipólito Burrola Ruíz was born on November 25, 1936, on a ranch in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México; he is one of fourteen children; as a child, he would help his uncles in the fields; when he was twelve years old, he dropped out of school in order to begin working and helping his family financially; he was married in 1958, and the following year, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in New Mexico and Texas; he continued working with the program until 1961. Summary of Interview: Mr. Burrola briefly discusses his family and childhood; in1958, he was married; the following year he enlisted in the bracero program at a contracting center in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México; he mentions the long waiting lines, the required documents, examinations, and how callused hands were essential to obtaining a contract; from there, he was transported by train to Rio Vista, a processing center in Socorro, Texas, where he underwent further assessments and was deloused; in addition, he describes the poor conditions at the center; as a bracero, he worked in Artesia, New Mexico and O Brien and Pecos, Texas; he recalls how some men had to be tricked into going to Pecos, Texas; no one wanted to go there, because they were paid poorly and the harvest was usually not very good; he goes on to discuss his living and working conditions, wages, provisions, and recreational activities; when his contracts ended, he was returned to Rio Vista by bus, given food, and left on his own to return to México; he continued working with the program until 1961; he concludes by reflecting on the program overall and what it meant to him to be a bracero. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Hipólito Burrola Ruiz https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/saucedo_nmah013_df3a784588.mp3 f8646f11a81ae56c0865f0479acc3041 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Rosas, Ana Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Saucedo, Sebastián Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 1:03:15 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-5:12; Introduction and Early Life] Sebastián was born in Santa Bárbara, Chihuahua, México on May 25, 1922 and grew up on a ranch named San Silvestre in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. He is the third of six children. His father was an agricultural worker who planted corn and regularly used a yoke of oxen in the fields. Sebastián remarks that his father’s boss treated people very badly. He explains how his father’s boss used to cheat his father out of wages. Sebastián and his three older brothers eventually helped their father in the fields. Sebastián remarks that the people in the agricultural sector were very poor. Sebastián’s mother used a metate [stone tool to ground maize] to make tamales and tortillas with the help of other women. Sebastián started helping his father in the fields when he was six years old. Sebastián worked his whole life and did not attend school. [Mins 5:13-10:08; Thoughts of Becoming a Bracero] Sebastián moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México by way of train when he was twenty years old in search of a different way of life. He had a cousin who lived in Ciudad Juárez. He heard rumors that the United States was recruiting Braceros in order to get them to fight in World War II, but decided to ignore the rumors and become a Bracero anyway. His mother cried and worried for him but both his parents gave him their blessings. Sebastián was the only one in the family to become a Bracero. Sebastián explains that he has faith in a saint named el señor de los guerreros [literally translates to father of the warriors] who appeared in a church in San José de Tizonazo, Durango, México. He speaks at length about the saint’s apparition and how he prays for the safety of his current family members. Sebastián explains that the train he took to Ciudad Juárez was a daily train from Santa Barbara to Ciudad Juárez. The train generally carried minerals and metals, but also had a passenger car. He paid six pesos [Mexican currency] for the trip. [Mins 10:09-14:15; Processing] Sebastián’s cousin, who had recently signed up to become a Bracero, took him to the contracting center in Ciudad Juárez. Sebastián was charged two pesos to sign up. He and about eighty others were sent to Querétaro, Querétaro, México to complete paperwork. Afterwards, they were transported back to Ciudad Juárez and into the United States by way of train through El Paso, Texas. The train dropped Braceros off at New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Sebastián was dropped off with about thirty or forty Braceros in Nevada. At the processing center in Querétaro the men’s hands were examined for calluses. Sebastián states that he was nervous during this process. He explains that men who did not pass the examination hid on the train back to Ciudad Juárez because there was no work in Querétaro. Sebastián states that there were men from all over México at the processing center. It took Sebastián’s group fifteen days to be called. Meanwhile, they slept on knapsacks that they rented for twenty cents. [Mins 14:16-18:03; Transport to Workplace] Sebastián speaks briefly about the war. He expresses the uncertainty he and many other Braceros felt about what kind of work they were going to have to perform. Sebastián was in Nevada for six months. Sebastián repeats information about the initial train trip through the United States. After they were dropped off in Nevada, there were bilingual men in trucks ready to transport the Braceros to their workplaces. When they arrived, they were given a tour of the facilities. [Mins 18:04-22:00; Living Conditions and Food] Sebastián was assigned to a house with four other men. The house included two or three bedrooms, a stove, and an icebox. Sebastián expresses happiness that he was able to cook his own food on his own stove. Sebastián bought food on ration stamps. Sebastián remembers that the Braceros ate beans and sopa (pasta dish). Milk, eggs, and meat were rationed. Sebastián states that there was no discrimination in the marketplaces and describes the sellers as Mexican, “American” [white], and Native American. Sebastián describes feeling wary about the house at first because he had never cooked for himself before. The Braceros brought their own lunch to the workplace. Sebastián describes the process of making tortillas. [Mins 22:01-26:01; Working Conditions] Sebastián was paid seventy-five cents an hour in Nevada as compared to twenty-five cents an hour in Fabens, Texas, where he had previously worked for fifteen days. In Nevada, the Braceros at Sebastián’s worksite were transported to and from the workplace and had to remain in their houses when they were not working. Braceros at this worksite awoke at 4a.m. and were taken to work at 6a.m. Sebastián describes the winters as very cold and the summers as very hot. During the winter, Sebastián’s Italian boss gave each Bracero a thick coat free of charge. Sebastián states that his duties and contracts were fully explained to him. Sebastián describes the process of assembling railroads. The Braceros at this worksite worked eight hours a day. [Mins 26:02-27:44; Relations With Other Braceros] Sebastián remembers that in his housing facility all of the men were Mexican Braceros. Sebastián describes getting together with the other Braceros after dinner to talk and pass the time. He remembers talking about dances and girlfriends. [Mins 27:45-29:57; Relations With Family] Sebastián expresses that he was very happy with his job because he could save money. He would write to his parents and send them money every fifteen days. After working in Nevada, Sebastián brought his parents and brothers and sisters to Ciudad Juárez to live. His father, his brothers, and he made houses of adobe in Ciudad Juárez and he bought a plot of land with his own money. Sebastián explains that his brothers and sisters were very grateful to him for bringing them to Ciudad Juárez. [Mins 29:58-32:03; Second Contract] Sebastián worked in Nevada for six months. Afterwards, he was re-contracted in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, and sent to Nebraska to work with beets. There were about forty men at Sebastián’s worksite. Sebastián describes how he held the same bent-over position for the whole day while he worked on rows that were about a mile long. Sebastián remarks that the weather was neither too hot nor too cold. He expresses that his living arrangements were not as nice as his prior arrangements in Nevada, explaining that they lacked some basic functions, like an icebox. [Mins 32:04-34:37; New Mexico and Kansas] Sebastián explains that he never thought twice about re-contracting himself as a Bracero because he was able to make money. He states that he had had previous jobs in Mexico where the only pay was food. Sebastián was a Bracero for nine years. His last job was with Stahmann Farms near La Mesa, New Mexico working with walnuts. He worked as a Bracero at Stahmann Farms for four years, arranged his paperwork [legalized his residency], and continued working at Stahmann Farms for twenty-eight years. Sebastián worked in Nevada in 1945, in Nebraska in 1946, and in Kansas in 1947. In Kansas Sebastián worked with potatoes, beets, and fruits such as pears and apples. Sebastián worked with eighty Braceros at the Kansas worksite. There were two American cooks who cooked three meals a day for all of the Braceros at the Kansas worksite. Sebastián states that he was treated very well at the Kansas worksite. [Mins 34:38-37:17; Hardships and Discrimination] Sebastián describes missing his family while he was in the United States. He also states that the “American” [white] doctors treated the Braceros badly at the border between the United States and México. Sebastián expresses distaste at having to remove all of his clothing during the examinations at the border and professes discrimination when they covered him and other Braceros with DDT. [Mins 37:18-40:51; Good Experiences] Sebastián states that he never feared the INS because the Bracero Identification Cards acted as a sort of passport. Sebastián’s initial aim was to live in México, but he loved working in the United States so much that whenever he returned to México he felt drawn to work in the United States again. Sebastián remembers attending the cinema and does not recall facing any discrimination there. He does remember hearing from other Braceros that in Texas Braceros were discriminated against. Sebastián praises the “Americans” [white people] where he worked as a Bracero for treating Mexicans well, calling them muy buena gente [very good people]. Braceros who wanted to attend church could get a ride with the boss on Sunday. [Mins 40:52-43:52; Marriage] Sebastián met his wife in Ciudad Juárez and married her in 1947. She lived in Ciudad Juárez with Sebastián’s mother and when he secured work in New Mexico, he would visit her every fifteen days with his boss’ permission. His first child was born in 1948. While he was a Bracero, he had three children in México with his wife. Sebastián sent his wife money and she was in charge of the finances. [Mins 43:53-48:42; Stahmann Farms and Legalizing Residency] Sebastián now resides with his family in El Paso, TX. He arranged his paperwork [legalized his residency] in 1955. At Stahmann Farms, Sebastián picked cotton and worked with walnuts. His boss was named Willie Stahmann and he was German. Sebastián describes him as a good person. He received very good bonuses—up to $1,000 at Christmas. Sebastián’s boss, Mr. Stahmann, offered to help the Braceros, their spouses, and children arrange their paperwork [legalize their residency]. Sebastián talks at length about his house in Ciudad Juárez. It took Sebastián one day to arrange his paperwork [legalize his residency] and one more day to bring his family to New Mexico. Mr. Stahmann sent a moving truck to Ciudad Juárez to help Sebastián and his family move. [Mins 48:43-50:35; New Mexico] Sebastián reports that his wife was happy about the move so that the family could be together. Sebastián laughs fondly about his wife bringing her metate to the United States where he says she would not need it. Sebastián lived near La Mesa with his family for fourteen years. He describes his house as a beautiful ranch-type area with very nice houses close to Las Cruces, New Mexico. A school bus would pick up Sebastián’s children near his home to take them to school in Old Mesilla, New Mexico. Sebastián speaks at length about his children. [Mins 50:36-52:03; Moving to El Paso] Sebastián moved to El Paso shortly after Willie Stahmann died. After Willie Stahmann died, Sebastián worked for another year or two at Stahmann Farms under the direction of Willie Stahmann’s three sons, but describes how it was different than working under Willie Stahmann. Sebastián moved to El Paso and worked at a meat-packing plant named Peyton. [Mins 52:03-53:09; New Mexico Continued] Sebastián remembers that there were a lot of Mexicans in New Mexico and that all of the bosses were “American” [white]. He remarks that they treated the Mexicans very well. While working at Stahmann Farms, Sebastián lived in a house owned by his boss. [Mins 53:10-55:57; Peyton and Next Job] Sebastián talks briefly about Peyton and the Chamizal National Memorial Park in El Paso. Sebastián was paid $12 an hour at Peyton and belonged to a union. Sebastián quit Peyton in 1981 when the unions closed and the company was planning to move to Amarillo, TX where they would pay workers $7 an hour. Afterwards, Sebastián worked in fields near Anthony, New Mexico picking chili, cotton, and weeds. [Mins 55:58-57:26; Reflection on Jobs] Sebastián has worked in Nevada, New Mexico, Arkansas, Texas, Arizona, and Nebraska. Sebastián remarks that the work came easy to him. He states that it was a bit strange to pay rent in El Paso after he had gotten used to not paying rent at Stahmann Farms. He talks briefly about his house in El Paso. [Mins 57:27-58:08; Documents] Sebastián explains the objects he brought with him to the interview. He has a document from Nevada stating that he did not fight in World War II but worked to help the war effort. He also has recommendation letters from his bosses from the time when he worked as a Bracero. After each six month term was over, the boss would give each Bracero a letter of recommendation. Sebastián always kept these documents with him, and they are therefore folded. [Mins 58:09-60:08; Crossing the Rio Grande] Sebastián describes an incident of how one year he did not get contracted in Chihuahua and tried to cross the Rio Grande into the United States. He did not make it across. Sebastián’s documents are stained because they got wet when he attempted to cross the river. His documents were scanned into the computer and his photograph was taken at the interview site. [Mins 60:09-End; Concluding Remarks] Sebastián states that he was happy to be a Bracero and that it was worth it. He is thankful to be in the United States to raise his family here. He speaks briefly about his children’s occupations. Sebastián describes the importance of having a good relationship with his wife. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Saucedo_NMAH013 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Sebastián Saucedo creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Rosas, Ana contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rosas, Ana Saucedo, Sebastián Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Sebastián Saucedo was born in Santa Bárbara, Chihuahua, México, on May 25, 1922; he is the third of six children; as a child, he helped his father work in the fields; consequently, he was never formally educated; in 1945, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in the fields and on the railroads in various places throughout the United States, including Arizona, Arkansas, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas; he worked with the program for roughly ten years; eventually, he was able to legalize his family’s residency, and they all moved to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Saucedo talks about his family and childhood; he initially enlisted in the bracero program in 1945, in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, but he was then transferred to Querétaro, Querétaro, México, in order to complete the paperwork; from there, he was transported by train back to Juárez and into the United States before finally being taken to Nevada, where he worked on the railroads; in addition, he describes the various procedures he underwent while being processed; as a bracero, he went to work picking different crops in several places throughout the United States, including Arizona, Arkansas, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Texas; he goes on to discuss his duties, wages, working and living conditions, provisions, hardships, recreational activities, religion, and relationships with fellow employees and employers; in 1955, he legalized his residency, and continued working on a walnut farm in La Mesa, New Mexico; eventually, he was able to legalize residency for his family, and they all moved to the United States; he concludes by describing his fondness for the United States, and he reflects happily on his bracero experiences. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Sebastián Saucedo https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/corral_nmah014_e0b91de8c6.mp3 8519f55f613525d7a144ec766867b4a6 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Rosas, Ana Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Corral, José G. Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 53:00 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Time Summary A summary of an interview given for different time stamps throughout the interview [Mins 0:00-3:23; Introduction] José Guadalupe Corral was born on September 25, 1943 in Delicias, Chihuahua, México. He was the youngest of five children. His mother died when he was one and half years old. When he was three years old, his family moved to Meoqui, Chihuahua, México. In 1950, his family moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México. José’s father, Luis Corral Ortega, became a Bracero in 1946. Before becoming a Bracero, Luis owned carpentry factories. One of José’s sisters died in 1972. The rest of his siblings currently reside in México, and José resides in the United States. [Mins 3:24-5:03; Luis’ Bracero Work] As a Bracero, Luis worked for a factory in El Paso, Texas called El Paso Junior Stockyards, which transported livestock from México to the United States. Luis’ boss’ surname was Ziegler. Before he worked for the stockyard, Luis worked on the railroads in El Paso. [Mins 5:04-7:28; Conditions in Meoqui] While José was in school in Ciudad Juárez, he would sell fruit in the afternoons. He remembers that it was hard work. He recalls that while he was living in Meoqui, his mother’s brother was in charge of him and his siblings. Luis would send them money from the United States, but José remembers that it was a hard life with a scarcity of food. During the first six months of Luis’ Bracero work, José’s family was lent a house on the condition that they care for the wheat mills on the land. José recalls that they would eat pigeons and food from the flour that the mills produced. José would also ask his neighbors for food. After six months, Luis sent home money monthly by telegram until the family moved to Ciudad Juárez. [Mins 7:29-11:47; Conditions in Ciudad Juárez] José recalls that his family was financially more stable when they moved to Ciudad Juárez, although he cautions that life was still hard. His family rented a house in La Chaveña neighborhood in Ciudad Juárez. José remembers the atmosphere of Ciudad Juárez as more tranquil and trustworthy than the atmosphere today. José would attend school for four hours in the morning, work for two hours in the afternoon, and then return home to clean and maintain the house while his siblings were working. José remembers that Luis was not allowed to cross the border until 1958. So, José would cross the Río Grande to bring Luis lunch. José’s uncle was a plumber. José speaks about how his family worked together to survive, paying bills, clothing themselves, and working. He names the schools which he attended. [Mins 11:48-14:58; Legalizing Residency] In 1958, Luis attempted to legalize his family’s residency. However, his request was denied because his wage was not considered sufficient to support his family. Luis was making minimum wage at the time. So, Luis only arranged for José’s local passport. José attended college in El Paso. While he attended college, he also worked. José gave his entire wage to Luis, who then would give José back a small share. José repeats information about experiences in Ciudad Juárez. While José was in El Paso, two of his sisters worked at the Commercial Bank of Chihuahua. His oldest sister legalized her residency and was able to get a job at a factory that manufactured pants. José expresses that his family modeled their hard work ethic after Luis. [Mins 14:59-20:00; Education, Legalizing Residency Continued] José remembers that Luis was very strict about schoolwork. José repeats information about his father becoming a Bracero. Luis was only in Meoqui one month before he left to Ciudad Juárez as a Bracero. José did not see his father at all from 1946 to 1953. He repeats information about experiences in Meoqui. Luis’ last Bracero contract was in 1954. El Paso Junior Stockyard gave Luis documentation to become a legal resident. José repeats information about Luis’ attempt to legalize his family’s residency. He repeats information about how strict his father was about schoolwork. [Mins 20:01-22:28; Post-Bracero Living Arrangements] In 1956, Luis married. Since one of José’s sisters did not get along with Luis’ wife, Luis and his wife set up a separate house in a separate neighborhood in Ciudad Juárez. Meanwhile, a live-in caretaker lived with José and his siblings. Luis’ wife died in 1958. Afterwards, Luis married the live-in caretaker and moved in with his children in Bella Vista neighborhood. The whole family resided there until José graduated from high school. [Mins 22:29-27:56; Father-Son Meetings in El Paso] José remembers how happy it made him to see Luis every fifteen days during the time that he crossed the river to bring Luis lunch. Luis would send José back with money for the family. José describes the short thirty-minute process of crossing the border. José and Luis would speak about school, new happenings, and Luis’ job among other things when they met every fifteen days. They would speak for no longer than one hour. Luis was the carpenter at the stockyard, making furniture. Later, Luis made/served coffee at the stockyard. José explains that INS officials would come to the stockyard compelling workers to hide, but Luis would serve them coffee without fear because he had a Bracero contract. [Mins 27:57-31:49; José’s Work Experiences] José states that he always obeyed Luis. Thus, he attended college in the United States because it was Luis’ wish. While José was in college, he worked in an El Paso store sweeping the floors for two hours a day before he returned to Ciudad Juárez each night. Minimum wage at that time was seventy-five cents an hour but José got paid thirty-five cents an hour since he was not a United States citizen. After six months, José began stocking shelves at the store. After two years, he had moved up to the cashier position. José graduated from college when he was seventeen, and by that time Luis was able to legalize José’s residency. José had studied to become an accountant, but he worked for a bank for a very short period of time because his love was operating heavy duty machinery at warehouses. Luis would scold José, asking him why he liked to perform manual labor, but José would reply that his aspirations lied in rising to manager or owner someday. [Mins 31:50-37:02; José’s Marriage] While he was in college, José would travel to and from home in Ciudad Juárez via El Paso City Lines busses. On the bus, he met his future wife. José attended International Business College. José discusses how his relationship with his wife developed. He speaks about his interest in sports and stresses that he has always been studious and well-behaved. José discusses Luis’ feelings toward José’s desire to marry. [Mins 37:03-40:59; Luis’ Death] Luis died in 1987 due to an accident in a hospital in El Paso. José speaks about his father’s death. José explains that his siblings’ reactions to Luis’ death were a result of their Christian religion. At the time of Luis’ death, José was a district manager at El Paso Water Utilities. José states that his father, Luis, was his lifelong friend and companion. He speaks about his connection to Luis. [Mins 41:00-46:14; Bracero Legacy] José speaks about the money owed to Braceros from the government. He thanks the Bracero History Project members for their interest in the Bracero Program. He expresses the importance of the sacrifices Braceros made for the United States and the significance of dissemination of knowledge about Braceros. [Mins 46:15-50:08; Final Reflections] José states that Braceros never strived to become wealthy. Rather, they worked for the opportunity to garner a better salary and progress. José states that his father would tell him about the “humiliations” he went through, such as the “disinfection” and being rallied like cattle. However, José expresses that the Braceros’ intentions were to craft a better life for their children. José is extremely grateful to Luis for his strength, struggle, and dedication. He is grateful that Luis kept the family united. He states that he always followed and continues to follow Luis’ example. José has ten children and fifteen grandchildren. He speaks about his children. He speaks about politics. File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Corral_NMAH014 Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. José G. Corral creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Rosas, Ana contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rosas, Ana Corral, José G. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Guadalupe Corral was born on September 25, 1943, in Delicias, Chihuahua, México; he was the youngest of five children, and his mother died when he was a baby; when he was three years old, his family moved to Meoqui, Chihuahua, México; his father, Luis Corral Ortega, became a bracero in 1946; Luis worked in El Paso, Texas, on the railroads and at a factory that transported livestock from México into the United States; later, the family moved again, to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, which was where José primarily grew up; his father continued working with the program until 1954; Luis was ultimately able to arrange for José’s residency, which allowed him to attend school in the United States and have greater opportunities. Summary of Interview: Mr. José Corral describes his family and childhood; his father, Luis Corral Ortega, became a bracero in 1946, at which time his family lived in Meoqui, Chihuahua, México; José discusses remittances arriving in the mail and his family’s living conditions in México while his father was away; in 1950, the family had enough money to move to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, where life was slightly better for them; José describes an incident in which his father attempted to legalize his family’s residency, but was only able to arrange for José’s local passport; in addition, José goes on to describe his own educational and work experiences while in the United States, which include attending International Business College in El Paso, Texas, and serving as a district manager for El Paso Water Utilities; his father’s work ethic and commitment to education were things that always stayed with him; moreover, he reflects on the overall significance of braceros to the United States. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Son of a bracero Title A name given to the resource José G. Corral https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/hernandez_nmah015_bb5e1f6aa4.mp3 49a975271e931f15803bc9c287abdb68 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. subject (Spanish) Bracero Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Chivardi, Rosa Elia Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Hernández, Refugio Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 19:00 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Hernandez_NMAH015 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Refugio Hernández Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Refugio Hernández was raised by his uncle, Loreto Hernández, who was born in Los Angeles, California; Refugio’s other uncle, Crescencio Alpidio Hernández Delgado, who was Loreto’s brother, was born in San Jose, California, in 1927; both of Refugio’s uncles and the rest of their family were repatriated in 1932, and went to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México; Crescencio tried returning to the United States, but initially had great difficulties; during the 1940s and 1950s he worked in Arizona and California picking grapes, lettuce, limes, and oranges. Summary of Interview: Mr. Hernández discusses his uncles, Loreto Hernández and Crescencio Alpidio Hernández Delgado, and the stories he heard about them as a child; Loreto, Crescencio, and the rest of their siblings were born in the United States, but they were all repatriated in 1932; they then moved to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México; Crescencio tried returning to the United States, but initially had great difficulties due to his Pahuco style of dress; during the 1940s and 1950s he worked in Arizona and California picking grapes, lettuce, limes, and oranges; he also worked in El Paso, Texas unloading trucks; Refugio discusses the various instances of discrimination that his uncle encountered; he also describes the circumstances surrounding Crescencio’s death; moreover, he speaks about how working in the United States affected his uncle and their family. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chivardi, Rosa Elia Hernández, Refugio Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Refugio Hernández creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Chivardi, Rosa Elia Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/de_santiago_nmah016_25e49eb422.mp3 7c13f2c71d71cc8274cd45aba3ccba30 Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Loza, Mireya Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. De Santiago, Eduardo Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 34:51 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. De_Santiago_NMAH016 subject (Spanish) Bracero Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Eduardo De Santiago creator (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'creator' Dublin Core field. Loza, Mireya contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Loza, Mireya De Santiago, Eduardo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-11-12 Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Eduardo de Santiago was born on October 13, 1916, in Jerez, Zacatecas, México; he is the fifth of eight brothers and sisters; as a child, he helped his father work in the fields, and he stopped attending school when his father needed more help; he was an elected commissioner of his hometown, which made him responsible for compiling the lists of aspiring braceros for his area; his position led to him enlisting in the bracero program in 1954; as a bracero, he worked in Balmorhea, Texas, for six years, where he weighed and picked cotton; he legalized residency for himself and his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. de Santiago grew up with his parents, who were agricultural workers, and his seven brothers and sisters; he describes his commissioner position and the way in which he came to enlist as a bracero, in 1954; he was transported from his hometown of Jerez, Zacatecas, México, to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, where he was examined and then transferred to Rio Vista, a processing center in Socorro, Texas; as a bracero, he worked in Balmorhea, Texas, for six years, where he weighed and picked cotton; in addition, he also learned to drive a tractor; he describes his close relationship with the grower, wages, duties, living and working arrangements, and recreational activities; furthermore, he explains how his family came to legalize their residency, which was not that difficult, because although he and his wife met in México, she was born in the United States; sometime after finishing his last contract, he worked at a chile and tomato farm in New Mexico, where he subsequently became the field boss; he concludes by discussing what the term bracero means to him and how happy he was to have worked with the program. Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource Bracero Title A name given to the resource Eduardo De Santiago https://braceroarchive.org/files/original/flores_nmah017_ddeb7e9579.mp3 fde99f66680c718d7f62574f3642bdcf Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Flores, Margarita Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Flores_NMAH017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Margarita Flores Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Flores, Margarita Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource eng Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Margarita Flores contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Location The location of the interview. El Paso, Texas Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Rodríguez, Gloria Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Photos File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Rodriguez_NMAH018 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Gloria Rodríguez Subject The topic of the resource bracero, pictures Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rodríguez, Gloria Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource eng Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Gloria Rodríguez Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Herrera Chairez, Consolacion Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini DIsc Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Herrera_Chairez_CAL001 Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Consolacion Herrera Chairez contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Language A language of the resource spa Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Subject The topic of the resource bracero Title A name given to the resource Consolacion Herrera Chairez Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Herrera Chairez, Consolacion Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Steve Velasquez, Harry Rubenstein and Peter Liebhold Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Huerta, Dolores Location The location of the interview. Washington, D.C. Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 1:17:00 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Huerta_WAS001 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dolores Huerta Subject The topic of the resource activist Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Dolores Huerta was born in Dawson, New México, but she was raised in Stockton, California; her father was a migrant worker, and she often accompanied him when she was young; later, she and her brothers also labored in the fields picking various crops; as an adult, she began working with braceros through the Community Service Organization (CSO); such efforts led to her involvement with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), and ultimately with the United Farm Workers (UFW). Summary of Interview: Ms. Huerta briefly talks about her parents and what her life was like growing up; as an adult, she began working with braceros as part of the Community Service Organization (CSO); she would often go to the bracero labor camps to help them when they were injured, which included obtaining doctors and/or lawyers when necessary; her mother owned a hotel at the time, where the braceros often stayed; she cared for them, giving them curfews and making sure they did not drink too much; she even invited them to local dances and encouraged them to get involved in the community; many braceros eventually married local women and settled in Stockton, California; although the braceros did become a part of the community, at times there was tension, because locals were too expensive to hire in comparison to braceros; moreover, braceros were often taken advantage of by growers; sometimes, they would get twice the number of workers they needed and rent out half of them as hired labor for profit; other times, the braceros would work in small groups only four hours a day; in addition to the money growers were given to feed each bracero, they would also turn a profit from the goods braceros purchased at the commissaries; these various tactics ensured that braceros did not earn very much; Dolores goes on to chronicle the different coalitions and labor groups she worked with, including the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) and the United Farm Workers (UFW). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Huerta, Dolores Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Velasquez, Steve Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-09-27 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource eng Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Dolores Huerta Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewer The person(s) performing the interview. Steve Velasquez, Harry Rubenstein and Peter Liebhold Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Imutan, Andy Location The location of the interview. Washington, D.C. Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 50:00 Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k File Name Identifier The identifier for the sound file. Imutan_WAS002 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Andy Imutan Subject The topic of the resource Activist Description An account of the resource Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Andy Imutan was born on March 8, 1926, in Manila, Philippines; he came to the United States with his wife in 1965; her parents petitioned for her to come to the United States; Andy and his wife came to Los Angeles, California, before going to Delano, California to work; he quickly became involved with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO); eventually, he was in charge of the Stockton and Delano, California, chapters of the organization; later, he began his own Filipino organization, which helped families and young wives acquire various work skills; he ultimately returned to the Philippines. Summary of Interview: Mr. Imutan very briefly describes his travels from the Philippines to California; he began working in Delano, California, but he quickly became involved with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO); in September of 1965, he was part of a strike that was a continuation of earlier efforts in Coachella, California, to achieve better pay; events in Coachella turned violent, with people getting hurt and equipment being damaged; after demands were met in Coachella, the same companies refused the same wages in Delano, hence the continuing strike; within roughly a week, Cesar Chavez joined the strike; Andy goes on to comment on the Filipino work crews, as well as their community and union interactions with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC); in addition, he details his organizing and fundraising efforts with the union, as well as his various travels; eventually, Chavez put him in charge of the Stockton and Delano, California, chapters of the organization; later, he began his own Filipino organization, which helped families and young wives acquire various work skills; he ultimately returned to the Philippines. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Imutan, Andy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-09-27 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource eng Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Andy Imutan Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Santillán, Cipriano Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 2 tape Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cipriano Santillán Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Santillán, Cipriano Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Cipriano Santillán contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Arroyo, Angel Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 1 tape Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Angel Arroyo Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arroyo, Angel Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Angel Arroyo contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Rodríguez, Agapito Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 1 tape Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Agapito Rodríguez Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rodríguez, Agapito Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Agapito Rodríguez contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Mojica, Francisco Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 3 tapes Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Francisco Mojica Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mojica, Francisco Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Francisco Mojica contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Martínez, Ramon Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini Disc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 2 tapes Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ramon Martínez Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Martínez, Ramon Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Ramon Martínez contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Camacho Rodríguez, Tranquilino Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini DIsc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 3 tapes Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tranquilino Camacho Rodríguez Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Camacho Rodríguez, Tranquilino Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Tranquilino Camacho Rodríguez contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Cristóbal A. Borges Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Oral History A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge. Interviewee The person(s) being interviewed. Yamas, Francisco Location The location of the interview. Chico, California Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Mini DIsc Duration Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.) 2 tapes Bit Rate/Frequency Rate at which bits are transferred (i.e. 96 kbit/s would be FM quality audio) 24 bit 96 k Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Francisco Yamas Subject The topic of the resource bracero Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yamas, Francisco Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Cristóbal Borges Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso Language A language of the resource spa Contribution Form The set of elements containing metadata from the Contribution form. Online Submission Indicates whether or not this Item has been contributed from a front-end contribution form. No Additional Item Metadata The additional item metadata element set, consisting of all item elements created by an administrator and not assigned to an item type, and item elements created by plugins and not assigned to an item type or other element set. Additionally, the metadata element set that, in addition to the Dublin Core element set, was included in the `items` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all Omeka items. title (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'title' Dublin Core field. Francisco Yamas contributor (Spanish) Spanish version of the 'contributor' Dublin Core field. Yamas, Francisco Rights Holder Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso