Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco Casas Martínez was born April 10, 1929, on a large ranch named La Ermita de los Correas in Jerez, Zacatecas, México; he came from a family of agricultural workers and was the youngest of his six siblings; by the time he was five years old, he helped care for the animals and work the land; although he was formally educated, he never really liked school and often found himself in trouble; by his own admission, he did not learn very much; in 1948, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in Arizona and California planting, watering, picking, and packing various fruits and vegetables; he and his family were ultimately able to legally immigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Casas describes what it was like growing up on a ranch and how he helped with the land and the animals; he initially learned about the bracero program through people that would go to the ranches and charge roughly three hundred pesos to enlist people; in 1948, he enlisted as a bracero and went through a contracting center in Guadalajara, Jalisco, México; from there he traveled by bus to the border; he was later examined, which included getting x-rays and being deloused; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona and California planting, watering, picking, and packing various fruits and vegetables; he goes on to detail work hours, duties, living conditions, accommodations, provisions, treatment, payments, deductions, remittances, recreational activities, and working relationships; in addition, he states that he did not eat the food when it was bad, but he did manage to stop by a commissary at the worksite and buy some milk and bread to eat before work; moreover, he discusses that there were times when women worked in the fields with the men cutting lettuce and strawberries or cleaning and pruning the crops; when he was twenty-five, he married and later had five children; he explains that two of them died in México, while he was working as a bracero; after the program ended, he returned to México; he and his family were able to legally immigrate to the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco García Carrillo was born in Cusihuiriachi, Chihuahua, México, in 1933; his father was a rancher; at the age of seven, he would help his father work; later, when he was fourteen, he began working in the mines; because working in the mines was such a dangerous job, he decided to go to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, to be hired as a bracero; he began working as a bracero when he was only eighteen years old; he worked in Texas and New Mexico. Summary of Interview: Mr. García recalls that during the hiring process, people from the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas received privileges; during the general hiring process, American officials would ask people if cotton and apples could be picked the same way; anyone who answered that they could, would be dismissed; Mr. García also remembers that he and his friends would drink milk prior to taking X-rays so that their lungs would appear healthy and clean; after working as a bracero for a time, he was promoted to steward; during the holidays, the braceros would celebrate by grilling chicken for dinner and drinking beer; the Mexican Counsel was helpful in resolving any problems braceros may have encountered.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco Gallardo González was born January 1, 1933, in Atil, Sonora, México; he was the first born of his six siblings; his father was a bricklayer, and he also worked his own land, planting corn, cotton and wheat; Francisco was also formally educated through the sixth grade; in 1954, he worked in the United States, and he was ultimately able to acquire a bracero contract through 1956; he labored in the alfalfa fields and orange orchards of California; in 1958, he obtained legal status, and he settled in Tucson, Arizona; two years later, in 1960, he married; he and his wife had six children, five boys and one girl. Summary of Interview: Mr. Gallardo talks about his family and hometown; in 1954, he came to the United States and worked without proper documentation in Holtville, California; his boss took him to El Centro, California to obtain a contract with the bracero program; he explains what he went through, including medical exams and delousing procedures, before returning to work in Holtville; after his contract ended, he returned to México and went through the contracting process in Empalme, Sonora, México, which was much more difficult, due to the requirements and long waiting times; as a bracero, he labored in the alfalfa fields and orange orchards of California; he goes on to detail camp sizes, housing, accommodations, living conditions, provisions, duties, routines, treatment, contract lengths and renewals, payments and remittances; moreover, he mentions the various jobs the men completed, including driving tractors and irrigating crops; they earned between $1.00 and $1.75 an hour, which at the time, was a lot of money; oftentimes, they were bitten by snakes while working and cured themselves; on one occasion Francisco was involved in a fist fight with another bracero; later, in 1958, he obtained legal status, and he settled in Tucson, Arizona; two years later, in 1960, he married; he and his wife went on to have six children, five boys and one girl; overall, he is proud to have been a bracero and has positive memories of the program.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco Gutiérrez was born in Lluvia de Oro, Chihuahua, México; he had five brothers and six sisters, but his father also had eight children with another woman; his mother was twenty-three years old and a teacher in the city when she was taken by his father who was sixty years old; although Francisco was never formally educated the way his older siblings were, his mother did tutor him at home; as a boy his parents moved to Mexicali, Baja California, México; his wife, María Guadalupe Gutiérrez, was born in Manuel Doblado, Guanajuato, México; she was formally educated through the third grade; during the sixties, he worked as a bracero in California picking pecans, tomatoes, and other fruits; he and María later immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Francisco’s wife, María, and daughter, Leticia, offer a detailed description of his family and parents; he and two of his brothers traveled to Empalme, Sonora, México, in order to pick two thousand kilograms of cotton and get the cards they needed to enlist in the bracero program; they then returned to Mexicali, Baja California, where they were medically examined and fumigated; one of his brother-in-laws chose to return to México rather than endure being stripped and deloused; Francisco worked as a bracero in California picking pecans, tomatoes, and other fruits; he describes treatment, provisions, and free time, including trips into town; María mentions that they met just after he returned from a contract, and they married only a few months later; on his next contract she went with him, but she later stayed with his parents while he was gone; Leticia was their first born, and they had six more children; Leticia describes how difficult life was for her when her father was gone; he sent letters and money home every fifteen days; when María was pregnant for the third time, with twins, he returned from his last bracero contract just as they were born; both María and Francisco worked illegally for a time in the United States; in 1985, Leticia legally immigrated to the United States with her husband; by 2000, she was able to obtain legal documentation for her parents as well.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco Murrillo Almaráz was born in Tabasco, Zacatecas, México; he never attended formal schooling, and began working in agriculture at an early age; he was the only boy among three siblings; in 1942, he was contracted as a bracero in Mexico City, México; he worked in Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington; there he picked apples, beets, lemons, oranges, and peaches and also cut lettuce; he worked in the United States for fifty-seven years, and has never become a U.S. citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Murrillo Almaráz remembers growing up in Tabasco, Zacatecas, México and working from an early age in agriculture; he states that he never had formal schooling; in 1942, he explains that he was contracted as a bracero in Mexico City, México; he details that many people, in 1942, did not want to join the bracero program because they were worried that they might be sent to the war; moreover, he worked in Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington; there he picked apples, beets, lemons, oranges, and peaches and also cut lettuce; he recalls the contracting process, his trip to the border, the medical exams they endured, and crossing into the U.S.; he describes what daily life was like on the farms, the living conditions they had, the pay they received, and the food they ate; furthermore, he relates what braceros did for recreation; he says that he worked in the United States for over fifty-seven years, and that in that time he never wanted to become a U.S. citizen.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Froylan Huerta González was born on July 14, 1941, in Huaniqueo de Morales, Michoacán, México; he had three sisters and two brothers; his parents were campesinos, but his father also owned a bar, which proved to be the family’s main source of income; by the time he was roughly seven years old, he had learned to work the land; he was not formally educated for very long, but he did learn to read and write; during the sixties he worked illegally in the United States, but he was later able to obtain legal documentation. Summary of Interview: Mr. Huerta briefly describes his family and what it was like growing up in a small town; he recalls that in order to get on the list of available workers in Empalme, Sonora, México, he had to pay between six and eight hundred pesos and wait one or two months to be called; while there he worked washing dishes at a restaurant in exchange for food; he explains the entire process he underwent, including medical exams; from there he was transported in a train, like an animal, to Mexicali, Baja California, México; he also describes the centers he passed through and being deloused; as a bracero, he worked in the fields of Arizona and California; he goes on to detail the various worksites, housing, amenities, living arrangements, provisions, daily routines, duties, treatment, payments, remittances, and recreational activities, including trips into town; in addition, he gives a detailed explanation of the work involved in picking onions; one of the foremen he worked with even took him to see lucha libre, and he got hooked on it; he also mentions that on payday, some of the men would spend the entire weekend dancing and drinking; they would show up hungover for work on Monday morning; after the program ended he returned to México, but soon after, he began working illegally in the United States; he later married, and his wife helped him obtain legal documentation; overall, his memories of the bracero program are positive, especially because he was able to save money.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Gabino Solís was born in 1928, in Pueblo Nuevo, Guanajuato, México; he went to school through the fourth grade, and while doing so, he would often help his father work the land; when he was eighteen, he enlisted in the military for a year; in 1948, he was able to begin the hiring process for the bracero program; he worked in Arkansas, California, and Texas; as a bracero he picked corn, cotton, grapes, melons, peaches, and tomatoes; he continued working with the program until 1959, and two years later, he emigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Solís briefly speaks of his childhood and adolescence; later, when he was eighteen, he enlisted in the military for a year in order to be put on the county’s list of eligible workers for the bracero program; in 1948, he went to Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, to begin the hiring process; after waiting there for a week, he was sent to Matamoros, Tamaulipas, México and then to Arkansas to work in a cotton field; his second and third contracts took him to work in the cotton fields of Texas; the next time around, he decided to go through the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México, which took him to work in California; he worked in Calexico, Coachella, and Indio, where it was too hot, and he earned very little money; a group of braceros requested a change of location from the Mexican Consulate, and they were transferred to Yuba City, California, where they picked melons; from then on, he went through the contracting center in Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico, so he could work in the areas of California that offered more money; 1959 was the last year he worked as a bracero; later, in 1961, he emigrated to the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Gabriel Martínez Ángel was born in San Martín Texmelucan, Puebla, México, on March 24, 1938; his uncles worked as braceros in the late forties, which ultimately inspired him to do the same; in 1960, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in California, Colorado, Michigan, and Texas, picking beans, beets, cucumbers, strawberries, and tomatoes; in 1970, he obtained a visa, which was later taken away from him, but he was able to help the rest of his family legally emigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez briefly recalls his family and childhood; his uncles worked as braceros in the late forties, which ultimately inspired him to do the same; in 1960, he enlisted in the bracero program; he describes the entire process he went through both in México and in the United States, including obtaining his military ID card, getting his name on the county’s list of available workers, physical examinations, and being deloused; as a bracero he worked in California, Colorado, Michigan, and Texas, picking beans, beets, cucumbers, strawberries, and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the various worksites, duties, contract lengths, payments, deductions, housing, living amenities, provisions, remittances, and recreational activities; moreover, he relates how there were occasional problems and confrontations among workers and between workers and foremen; he also talks about celebrating Mexican holidays among themselves; Texas was the worst place for him to work, because they were treated like animals there; while working as a bracero people offered to help him gain legal status, but it never happened; consequently, he mentions that the political situation under Díaz Ordaz factored into his inability to gain legal status; he stayed in México until 1970, when he entered the United States with a visa, and he was also able to obtain visas for the rest of his family; later, he had his visa taken away from him and was sent back to México, at which point he returned to the United States illegally; he concludes by stating that the bracero program was a positive experience, because in México he did not have as many possibilities to make the same kind of money.
Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: George H. Veytia was born in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, on October 1, 1931; he had two sisters and one brother; when he was only a month old, his family moved to El Paso, Texas, which is where he grew up; he graduated from Texas Western in 1954, and he served in the Army from 1954 to 1956; after being released from the Army, he began working as a claims adjuster for an insurance company that serviced a number of braceros. Summary of Interview: Mr. Veytia briefly recalls his family and childhood; he graduated from Texas Western in 1954, and shortly thereafter joined the Army, where he served until 1956; after being released from the Army, he came to work as a claims adjuster for an insurance company; his primary responsibility was to receive all the claims from the bracero program in Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas; he describes his position with the company, the various types of policies that were applicable in different situations, their coverage, the company’s range of action, and the average number of insured braceros during a harvesting season; in addition, he details what his professional relationships with the Mexican authorities, farmers, doctors, and braceros were like; he explains what many of the common claims were and what the normal procedures were in the event of an illness.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Gil Villagran was born in 1948, in Mexico City, México; he is the son of an ex-bracero; his father joined the bracero program in 1943; at age five, his parents migrated to the United States; he is a retired social worker, and a professor at the University of California in San Jose. Summary of Interview: Mr. Villagran recalls his early life in Mexico City, México, and the work his parents did in the city; he relates stories his father told him about the bracero program; he remembers his father telling him that he was forced to join the program because he could not find work; Mr. Villagran’s father became a bracero in 1943, and worked in railroad, as well as picking vegetables; additionally, he describes that his father had to cut and bruise his hands when he applied to become a bracero because they were only taking field workers; he also details his father’s experience in the contracting center, his trip to the border, and the fumigation process; moreover, he recounts the relationship his parents had while his father was in the United States, their decision to migrate to the U.S. after the program was terminated, and his memories of what his father did for work; he concludes by stating that, notwithstanding the ill treatment his father received at times, the program was beneficial for his family.