Antonio Nuño
subject: bracero
creator: Shreibati, Annette
creator: Nuño, Antonio
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Antonio Nuno
creator: Romelia Richmond
date: 2008-11-18
rights: Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso
format: Digital, WAV, MP3
language: SP

Antonio Olivares Samaniego
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Antonio Olivares Samaniego was born February 8, 1929in Bavispe, Sonora, México; he was the fourth born of his five siblings; his mother was a housewife, and his father was an agriculturalist; he was formally educated only through the third grade, because he had to help his father work in the fields; the family later moved to Hermosillo, Sonora, México; during the early 1950s, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arizona, California and Washington, picking and irrigating alfalfa, beets, cotton, pears, peas and tomatoes; after the program ended, he worked in the United States without proper documentation, but he was able to obtain legal status shortly thereafter. Summary of Interview: Mr. Olivares briefly talks about his family; after they moved to Hermosillo, Sonora, México, he heard about the bracero program; during the early 1950s, he decided to enlist in the program; he recounts the contracting process he underwent; although he was not medically examined in México, his hands and arms were checked to ensure that he was able to work; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arizona, California and Washington, picking and irrigating alfalfa, beets, cotton, pears, peas and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the various worksites, camp sizes, housing, accommodations, living conditions, provisions, routines, treatment, payment, remittances and contract lengths; in addition, he explains that while in Washington, his boss did not speak any Spanish; as a result, they communicated through signs; in Arizona, he had more contact with his boss, because he did speak Spanish; while there he was also given passes to return to México for Christmas; he also mentions that he worked from sun up to sun down, but he was only paid for ten hours daily; after the program ended, he worked in the United States without proper documentation, but he was able to obtain legal status shortly thereafter; overall, his exper…
creator: Sanmiguel, Manuel
creator: Olivares Samaniego, Antonio
date: 2008-01-05
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Antonio Sierra Garcia

Antonio V. Perez Herrera
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Antonio V. Pérez Herrera was born December 27, 1942, in Zináparo, Michoacán, México; he had four brothers and three sisters; his mother was a housewife, and his father was a campesino on an ejido; Antonio later married at the age of twenty; his brother, who had previously enlisted in the bracero program, convinced him to join in 1964; as a bracero, Antonio labored in the fields of California picking cantaloupes and tomatoes; after the program ended, he worked in the United States without documents, but he ultimately obtained legal status for himself and his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Pérez recalls his brother working as a bracero and being fascinated when he returned home with new clothes and a radio; Antonio later married at the age of twenty; he taught for a while but did not make very much money, which is why he decided to enlist as a bracero in 1964; in order to get on the list of available workers, he had to pay two hundred pesos; he explains that the fee was imposed by the person making the list, not the government; once on the list, he traveled to the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México; he describes the requirements, long waiting times and medical exams he endured at the center; from there he was transported with other men by train to the border at El Centro, California; they were fed and taken to barracks to await departure to their individual worksites; as a bracero, Antonio labored in the fields of California picking cantaloupes and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the various worksites, camp sizes, housing, accommodations, living conditions, provisions, duties, routines, treatment, payments, deductions, correspondence and recreational activities, including religious services; in addition, he recounts other anecdotes about his experiences; after the program ended, he worked in the United States without documents; he explains that he earned better pay this way than as a bracero; in 1978, he obtained lega…
creator: Kalashnikova, Marina
creator: Perez Herrrera, Antonio V.
date: 2008-01-11
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Antonio Valencia Jiménez
subject: bracero
creator: Mena, Violeta
creator: Valencia Jiménez, Antonio
date: 2006-05-24
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Apolonio Venegas
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Apolonio Venegas was born on April 10, 1930, in San Román, Jalisco, México; his father’s name was Santiago Venegas, and he worked in agriculture in addition to selling goods in town to earn money; his mother’s name was Guadalupe Guzmán; Apolonio had twelve siblings; his family moved to México, Distrito Federal, for a few years, before settling in Zitácuaro, Michoacán, México; he later enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked throughout California picking apples, beets, carrots, cucumbers, green beans, pears, and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Mr. Venegas talks about his family and how they all worked hard to make ends meet; they moved around before settling in Zitácuaro, Michoacán, México; he later went to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, with a group of thirty-five men to enlist in the bracero program; at the time, he was very naïve and thought that the work would be easy, but it was extremely difficult; as a bracero, he worked throughout California picking apples, beets, carrots, cucumbers, green beans, pears, and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the various worksites, housing, living conditions, provisions, daily routines, duties, treatment, correspondence, payments, and remittances; moreover, he provides an extremely detailed explanation of the work involved in cultivating several crops, especially, cleaning, pruning, and picking beets, which included using the short hoe; while in Santa María, California, there was a dress code for the dining hall; if the men did not follow it, they were sent to change; he also describes immigration checks in which those with papers ran away to protect those without documentation, knowing nothing would happen to them once they showed their contracts; in addition, he mentions being part of a strike, because workers were cheated out of their fair pay due to an improperly balanced scale; by the time their complaints were investigated, the foreman had already fixed the scale; sometime after th…
creator: Acosta, Anais
creator: Venegas, Apolonio
date: 2006-05-26
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Application for back wages
subject: Application for back wages (form 1)
description: Luis Figueroa Encinas filled out this application in for back wages owed to him.
creator: Luis Figueroa Encinas
creator: Mexican Government
source: Heber, CA
publisher: UTEP
date: 2006-05-24
contributor: Monica Pelayo
rights: UTEP
language: eng

Application for back wages
subject: Application for back wages (form 2)
description: Luis Figueroa Encinas filled out this application in for back wages owed to him.
creator: Luis Figueroa Encinas
creator: Mexican Government
source: Heber, CA
publisher: UTEP
date: 2006-05-24
contributor: Monica Pelayo
rights: UTEP
language: eng

Aprendiendo de Documentos
subject: bracero
description: Los estudiantes deberán investigar dos leyes públicas y otras fuentes relacionadas con el programa de trabajadores Bracero. Aplicaran sus conocimientos y evaluaran si el programa fue llevado a cabo tal como fue previsto.
creator: Anais Acosta

Aprendiendo por medio de fotografías
subject: bracero
description: Los estudiantes discutirán sus conocimientos sobre el tema de inmigración, aprenderán acerca del Programa Bracero y usaran fotografías para desarrollar un mayor entendimiento de dicho programa.
creator: Anais Acosta

Aristeo Ortega Acuña
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Aristeo Ortega Acuña was born September 15, 1931, in Sahuaripa, Sonora, México; he was the second youngest of his nine siblings; his father was a laborer and also worked with seasonal crops; Aristeo was formally educated through the second grade; when he was fifteen years old, he worked in the fields of Obregón, Sonora, México; in 1957, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in Arizona and California cleaning, pruning, picking and loading apricots, lettuce, peaches, tomatoes and other citrus crops; he completed a total of four contracts; after the program ended, he immigrated to the United States; in 1967, he was able to bring his family with him. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ortega briefly talks about his family; in 1957, he decided to enlist in the bracero program; initially, he signed up in Hermosillo, Sonora, México and then traveled to the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México; he recounts the entire process he underwent, including the requirements to pick cotton, necessary papers, long waiting times and medical examinations; as a bracero, he completed a total of four contracts and labored in Arizona and California cleaning, pruning, picking and loading apricots, lettuce, peaches, tomatoes and other citrus crops; he goes on to detail the various worksites, camp sizes, housing, accommodations, living conditions, provisions, duties, routines, treatment, payments, contract lengths and recreational activities, including trips into town; in addition, he details picking peaches, which was especially difficult and dangerous, because of the high ladders they used; men often fell and were injured; despite the skill and risk involved, they were paid very little; he also recounts an incident in Sacramento, California when inspectors went to the camp, because the men were cheated out of their pay; they were transferred to another camp, and their boss was fined and no longer allowed to hire braceros; after the…
creator: Sanmiguel, Manuel
creator: Ortega Acuña, Aristeo
date: 2008-01-06
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Armando F. Salinas
creator: Simon Hosken
rights: Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso
language: EN

Armando Salinas
date: 2008-08-08

Armed guards look on as braceros wait to be processed through the Monterrey Processing Center, Mexico.
creator: Leonard Nadel
source: The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.07.14; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.07.14; Roll #: 7
publisher: National Museum of American History
date: 1956-00-00
contributor: National Museum of American History, Division of Work and Industry
rights: Restricted: no; Contact: NMAH Rights & Reproductions by email before distribution - rightsreproductions@si.edu
relation: See Nadel Footnote, 1.

Arnulfo Pompa
subject: bracero
creator: Díaz, Alejandra
creator: Pompa, Arnulfo
date: 2008-01-12
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Artemio Cantú Benavides
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Artemio Cantú Benavides was born on a ranch in China, Nuevo León, México, on September 16, 1932; he was the eldest of six children; as a child, he helped his father work the land and care for the animals; he was never formally educated; when he was eleven years old, his mother died, and he and his siblings were left in the care of their paternal grandmother; in 1959, he enlisted in the bracero program; he worked primarily in Texas as a tractor driver, but he also picked cotton, tomatoes, and other vegetables; he remained with the program for a total of four years. Summary of Interview: Mr. Cantú Benavides discusses his childhood and family; in 1959, he traveled to Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, to enlist in the bracero program; he mentions that while there, people often paid for the necessary documentation and were left without any money, but they still had to wait for months to be called; from Monterrey he was taken by bus to a reception center at the border where he was discriminated against and treated poorly; moreover, he describes the delousing process where the men were treated like animals, and the medical examinations, which included collections of blood samples, that were very painful; he endured what he had to, because he needed the money; his first bracero contract was only forty days, but he was later able to prolong it for another six months; he continued to obtain contract extensions over the next four years; consequently, he returned to México every six months to a year; as a bracero, he worked primarily in Texas as a tractor driver, but he also picked cotton, tomatoes, and other vegetables; he goes on to discuss various worksites, duties, wages, work schedules, living conditions, provisions, remittances, and recreational activities; in general, he was treated well by his employers; with the money he made as a bracero, he was able to open a small grocery store; unfortunately, he started drinking too much, and he l…
creator: Mieri, Magdalena
creator: Cantú Benavides, Artemio
date: 2005-08-31
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Article 7
subject: Article 7--transportation
description: Article 7 of the work contract explains the terms of the bracero's transportation. In it, it states that employers should transport their braceros free of charge, along with food, lodgings, and other necessary expenses. These provisions should be held as true unless the worker does not complete the terms of the contract. In this case, the employer is not obligated to pay for the bracero's transportation back to the reception center.
creator: Manuel de Jesus Roman Gaxiola
creator: U.S. Department of Labor
source: Heber, California
publisher: UTEP
date: 2006-05-24
contributor: Monica Pelayo
rights: UTEP
language: eng

Arturo Alvarez Padilla
subject: bracero
creator: Rivera, Angelica
creator: Alvarez Padilla, Arturo
date: 2005-08-31
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Arturo Berumen
subject: bracero
description: Arturo Berumen was born in 1962, in Zacatecas, México; he was the third born of his twelve siblings; his father, who was also named Arturo, was born in 1933; during the early 1950s, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California picking and packing tomatoes; in 1957, he married, and soon after, he began raising his family; years later, Arturo Jr. also married and had two children; he and his family eventually immigrated to the United States, and he became a citizen; he later helped his parents immigrate as well. Summary of Interview: Mr. Berumen talks about his father becoming a bracero, in the early 1950s; because he was very young, he changed the dates on his papers so he could complete his military service early and get a contract sooner; just as he finished his service, he learned a bus was already leaving for Guanajuato, México; he gathered his things and left without even saying good-bye to his mother; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California picking and packing tomatoes; he also made friends that he traveled with to and from México; one of his employers helped him send money home with a personal check, but it was not accepted in México, and they were not able to recover the lost money; when he worked loading trucks, he was treated better and given special privileges; with the money he did manage to save, he was able to build a home for his family in México, which they still own; years later, Arturo Jr. also married and had two children; he and his family eventually immigrated to the United States, and he became a citizen; he later helped his parents immigrate as well; in addition, he mentions having some of his father’s pay stubs, which he intends to use in order to fight for bracero compensation; according to a 1952 check, he was paid $35.00 for working between seventy and eighty hours in one week.
creator: Murillo, Grisel
creator: Berumen, Arturo
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Arturo Vargas Ríos
subject: bracero
description: Arturo Vargas Ríos was born July 4, 1929, in Rodeo, Durango, México; his mother, Amelia Ríos, was a housewife, and his father, Primitivo Vargas, worked in the fields; Arturo had four siblings; as a young man, he came to work in the United States without proper documentation for a short time; later, he was able to acquire a bracero contract, and he worked in the fields picking celery and lettuce; he was ultimately able to legally immigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Vargas talks about what his life was like growing up in México; he remembers that the bracero program was greatly publicized in his hometown of Rodeo, Durango, México; in order to enlist, he traveled to the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México by cargo train; he waited for fifteen days with several thousand other men for their names to be called; they were often solicited by people from town to help pick cantaloupe and watermelon, but if they left, they risked losing their place in line and their chance at a contract; from there, he took another train to the reception center in the United States, where he was medically examined and deloused; as a bracero, he worked in the fields picking celery and lettuce; he goes on to detail housing, accommodations, amenities, provisions, treatment, payments, remittances, friendships and recreational activities; in addition, he explains that many men arrived thin, but with the food they ate, they left rather plump; one of his boss’s wives was involved with a church that gave religious English classes, but the men were not required to attend; while he was away, he sent letters, money and photographs to his mother so she would know he was fine; upon returning home, he often brought gifts for his family, including electric shavers, coats and dresses; sometime later, he married in Durango, México and eventually began raising a family; he was ultimately able to legally immigrate to the United States; overall, he has positive memories of the prog…
creator: Acosta, Anais
creator: Vargas Ríos, Arturo
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

As an official and a guard look on, braceros receive lunch before boarding buses at the Monterrey Processing Center, Mexico.
description: At the Monterrey Processing Center, braceros line up to board the buses. The side of the buses read "Transportes Monterrey Saltillo S.A. de C.V.". These buses from Mexico will transport braceros to another processing center near the U.S.-Mexico border. Nadels Photos show the Hidalgo Processing Center, Texas as the next stop for becoming a bracero. Braceros also traveled by freight train from the Monterrey Processing Center, Mexico to the Mexico-U.S. border at Hidalgo. By train, the 150-mile journey took eight hours.
creator: Leonard Nadel
source: The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.06.03; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.06.03; Roll #: 6
publisher: National Museum of American History
date: 1956-00-00
contributor: National Museum of American History, Division of Work and Industry
rights: Restricted: no; Contact: NMAH Rights & Reproductions by email before distribution - rightsreproductions@si.edu
relation: See Nadel Footnote, 1.

As armed soldiers march past, braceros wait in line to board buses at the Monterrey Processing Center, Mexico.
description: At the Monterrey Processing Center, braceros line up to board the buses. The side of the buses read "Transportes Monterrey Saltillo S.A. de C.V.". These buses from Mexico will transport braceros to another processing center near the U.S.-Mexico border. Nadels Photos show the Hidalgo Processing Center, Texas as the next stop for becoming a bracero. Braceros also traveled by freight train from the Monterrey Processing Center, Mexico to the Mexico-U.S. border at Hidalgo. By train, the 150-mile journey took eight hours.
creator: Leonard Nadel
source: The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.06.02; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.06.02; Roll #: 6
publisher: National Museum of American History
date: 1956-00-00
contributor: National Museum of American History, Division of Work and Industry
rights: Restricted: no; Contact: NMAH Rights & Reproductions by email before distribution - rightsreproductions@si.edu
relation: See Nadel Footnote, 1.

Asterio López León
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Asterio López León was born on October 27, 1927, in Palmar de Sepúlvedas, Sinaloa, México; he is the oldest of eleven siblings; his parents worked in agriculture, and he began working with them from an early age; he completed formal schooling until the third grade; in 1950, he joined the bracero program, and worked as a bracero on and off until 1962; he worked in California picking cotton, grapefruit, and oranges. Summary of Interview: Mr. López León remembers growing up in Palmar de Sepúlvedas, Sinaloa, México; he discusses how he started working in agriculture at an early age, and how he was able to get formal school until the third grade; furthermore, he recalls how he heard about the bracero program, how he got his first contract after being an undocumented worker in Blythe, California, and how his boss there helped him acquire the contract; he explains how contracting occurred in Empalme, Sonora, México, how potential braceros waited sometimes for months to get contracted, and how he paid coyotes to get on the list for contracts; additionally, he states what the trip to the border was like, how the processing center in El Centro, California worked, and the medical exams he went through; he recounts that he was able to avoid fumigation by stating to the person conducting it that he did not want to get his suit dirty and that he would just leave; he states that the fumigator let him through without fumigating; in 1950, he joined the bracero program, and worked as a bracero on and off until 1962; he worked in California picking cotton, grapefruit, and oranges; moreover, he relates what daily life was like on the farms, the treatment he received from foremen, and the work he did.
creator: Mena, Violeta
creator: López León, Asterio
date: 2006-05-22
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

At the Monterrey Processing Center, Braceros wait in lines for buses to the border and for lunch in the dining hall. Vendors, including women and children, sell refreshments in the sun.
creator: Leonard Nadel
source: The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.03.43; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.03.43; Roll #: 3
publisher: National Museum of American History
date: 1956-00-00
contributor: National Museum of American History, Division of Work and Industry
rights: Restricted: no; Contact: NMAH Rights & Reproductions by email before distribution - rightsreproductions@si.edu
relation: See Nadel Footnotes, 1.