Aerial view of fields where braceros doing stoop labor taken out of a plane flying over California.
The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.19.34; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.19.34; Roll #: 19
National Museum of American History, Division of Work and Industry
Restricted: no; Contact: NMAH Rights & Reproductions by email before distribution - rightsreproductions@si.edu
The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.19.35; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.19.35; Roll #: 19
Affidavit not to immigrate to the United States nor to allow children to immigrate
Affidavit of consent for Melitona Santacruz not to immigrate to the United States nor to allow children to immigrate while minors.
Affidavit of employment & no public charge in Imperial, California
Affidavit of Employment and No Public Charge in Imperial, California for Jose Guadalupe Santacruz Rangel.
Affidavit of employment & no public charge (second page)
Affidavit of employment & no public charge (second page) for Jose Guadalupe Santacruz Rangel.
After a long journey to the border, braceros walk across the bridge between Reynosa, Mexico and Hidalgo, Texas.
After a long journey to the border, braceros walk across the bridge between Reynosa, Mexico and Hidalgo, Texas. In the United States, braceros went through health inspections and processing, and then boarded buses and trailer trucks to begin work in nearby farms.
The Leonard Nadel Collection, NMAH. Catalogue #: 2004.0138.12.08; Negative #: NAD-2004.0138.12.08; Roll #: 12
Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Aguileo Nambo was born on October 15, 1941, in Cuitzeo, Michoacán, México; he was the youngest of five siblings, and his parents were farmers; when he was a child, his father worked in California and Illinois for a brief time; in approximately 1960, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero he worked primarily in California, but also obtained short contracts to work in Arizona; he labored in the fields picking asparagus, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, and squash; although he had no intentions of staying in the United States when the program finished, he and his family eventually emigrated in the late seventies. Summary of Interview: Mr. Nambo briefly discusses his family and adolescence; when he was about fifteen years old, he and his older brother went to pick cotton in Sonora, México, and he was able to get his military service ID early; he traveled to Empalme, Sonora, and he paid money to get his name on the county’s list of available workers; while waiting there, he endured harsh conditions, but some of the men that were not called were left without any money or way to get back home; as a bracero he worked primarily in California, but he also obtained short contracts to work in Arizona; he labored in the fields picking asparagus, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, and squash; he also describes the various worksites, living conditions, provisions, payment, treatment, and remittances; moreover he details how people from a local store would send transportation to the camp on payday; working as a bracero provided him with the opportunity to help maintain his family; he becomes very emotional upon describing one instance in which he witnessed a man being severely mistreated, but he was too embarrassed to do anything; in spite of all that he suffered, his overall memories of being a bracero are positive; although he had no intentions of staying in the United States when the program finished, he and his family eventually emigrated in the late seventies.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Agustín Álvarez was born on August 28, 1941, in Los Volcanes, Jalisco, México; he lived with his mother and grandparents; at an early age, he began working in agriculture and, later, as a vaquero; he completed three years of formal school; his family moved to Mexicali, Baja California, México in 1960; he joined the bracero program that same year; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona and California picking cotton, lettuce, and tomatoes until 1964. Summary of Interview: Mr. Álvarez remembers his childhood in Los Volcanes, Jalisco, México, and growing up with his mother and grandparents; he states that he only completed three years of formal school, because he started working in agriculture at an early age; after the death of his aunt, he remembers how his mother moved his family to Mexicali, Baja California, México to help his uncle; he recalls learning about the bracero program while living there; in 1960, he joined the bracero program; he describes how he was contracted in Empalme, Sonora, México, what the process was like there, and how he was later sent to a center in Calexico, California; additionally, he explains what medical exams braceros received in the processing center, how they were deloused, and the food they were given; he describes how he felt humiliated during his time at the centers; he compares it to being treated like an animal; once in the United States, he worked in Arizona and California picking cotton, lettuce, and tomatoes until 1964; he details what life was like as a bracero, the work he did, and the good treatment he received from his foremen; moreover, he discusses the pay he received, where he lived, and the food he was given; he continues to recount an accident that occurred while braceros were being transported to a worksite; he explains that they were traveling in two different trucks and the first one was hit by a train; furthermore, he states he witnessed the entire accident and that many braceros died; he also recalls working alongside Japanese workers; to conclude he says that he feels positive about his experience as a bracero even though he suffered many hardships, but that he feels the word ‘bracero’ is discriminatory.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Agustín Bautista was born in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, México; he is the youngest sibling in his family; in 1943, he joined the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, California, Oregon, and Texas on the railroads; he also picked cotton, lemons and strawberries. Summary of Interview: Mr. Agustín Bautista recalls growing up in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, México; he states that he is the youngest sibling in his family; additionally, he explains that he was contracted for the first time on 1943, at Empalme, Sonora, México; he details how the contracting and processing of braceros was done, the treatment they received in Empalme, and how they were transported to the United States-México border; furthermore, he explains how officials had braceros shave their heads before crossing into the United States to prevent lice from spreading and how they were deloused; he relates how he worked in Arizona, California, Oregon, and Texas on the railroads and picking cotton, lemons, and strawberries; moreover, he states the work that he did while working on railroad tracks, how hard it was, and the dangers of it; he also describes what daily life was like for braceros, the living quarters they had, the food they ate, and what they did for recreation; in addition, he relates the difficulty of the agricultural work braceros did, the pay they received and the deductions made to his paycheck for food; furthermore, he states how he received ten percent of his paycheck that had been deducted for savings when he returned to México in between contracting; he clarifies that this only happened once, though; to conclude, he recounts how he returned to the United States as a legal migrant after the program ended.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Agustín Flores was born on April 1, 1940, in Poanas, Durango, México; he was the eldest of eight siblings, and as such began working in the fields at the age of seven in order to help his family; in spite of his continuing efforts to work and bring in money, his family’s financial situation continued to worsen; in a final effort to relieve his family’s economic burden, he traveled to Durango, Durango, to enroll in the bracero program in 1959; as a bracero, he worked in Texas picking oranges. Summary of Interview: Mr. Flores relives the hunger, sadness, and desperation that indelibly marked his childhood and adolescence; some of his uncles worked as braceros, and they had warned him that he would suffer greatly if he were to join them and work in the United States; in 1959, in spite of their admonitions, he decided to enroll in the bracero program with the hopes of alleviating some of his family’s financial burdens; he describes the long waiting periods during the hiring process he went through in Durango, Durango, México; in addition, he details the medical exams at the contracting center in Monterrey, Nuevo León, and the disinfecting procedures at the reception center in Del Rio, Texas; as a bracero, he worked in Texas at an orange orchard; he goes on to explain the daily activities, work, wages, payments, contract amendments and extensions, food, housing, common problems, and what some of the braceros often did on weekends; furthermore, he comments on what his life was like after the program, and he concludes that even after a year of working as a bracero, his financial situation did not improve.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Agustín González was born on August 28, 1928, in Pueblo Nuevo, Durango, Mexico; he had thirteen siblings; the spreading rumors of first time braceros making a substantial amount of money along with his brother’s insistence led him to enroll in the program in 1943; he worked in California and Texas, picking cotton, lemons, and oranges. Summary of Interview: Mr. González briefly recalls his family, childhood, and early adolescence; the spreading rumors of first time braceros making a substantial amount of money aroused his curiosity in the bracero program; in 1943, he and one of his brothers enrolled in the program; together they went through the contracting center in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México; he describes the official documents that were required, the humiliating medical exams they underwent, and how some of the men suffered from cold and hunger while waiting outside of the center; the guards at the center were also particularly cruel and even killed some of the men; from the center in Chihuahua, he and his brother were transported to the reception center in El Paso, Texas, by trains in cattle cars; as a bracero, he worked in California and Texas, picking cotton, lemons, and oranges; he goes on to describe what daily life was like on the farms, including work, wages, contracts, housing, food, weekend outings, and the relationships between the braceros and their American employers; in addition, he comments that he and other braceros were often discriminated against by Mexican-Americans; he concludes that his memories of the program are both happy and sad, but even so, he is proud to have been a bracero.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Agustín Martínez was born on May 15, 1918, in Torreón, Coahuila, México; he was the oldest of three siblings; his father died when he was three years old; at the age of fifteen, he began sowing beans and corn to help his family financially; hard economic conditions and positive stories from first time braceros led him to enlist in the bracero program in 1942; he worked in California, New Mexico, and Texas until 1959; his jobs included picking cotton and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez worked in California, New Mexico, and Texas from 1942 to 1959; he recalls the hiring process at the bracero contracting centers in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México and Tlaquepaque, Jalisco, México; additionally, he describes his train trip to the border, the disinfecting process at the reception center in Eagle Pass, Texas, and the signing of his contract; he relates details about the types of contracts they had, their lengths, and contract extensions; furthermore, he discusses their daily activities, the work they performed, their wages, their housing, and the food they ate; he also recounts how he saved money to send back to México; moreover, he remembers the relationships that existed between braceros, the problems he had with one bracero, in particular, their weekend trips, and the good treatment they received from ranchers; he also explains what the term bracero means to him, why he is proud of having been a bracero, and his positive memories of the experience.
Clerk typist at bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Aida Bareda Torres was born on July 31, 1934, and her sister, Tula Bareda Sánchez, was born on December 1, 1935; they were both born in Mission, Texas; their father worked as a local doctor, and coincidentally delivered Aida; during the 1950s, both girls began working as typists, during the summers, at a bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas. Summary of Interview: Aida and Tula recall their time working as typists at a bracero processing center in Hidalgo, Texas, during the 1950s; they initially learned about the job through word of mouth; upon being hired, they were contracted with the federal government, and given government classifications; although there were different shifts because the center was open twenty-four hours a day, they worked the morning shift, which lasted eight hours; the girls were allowed to take brakes, and they often brought a sack lunch; the braceros were brought into the center, which was a huge warehouse, and they were taken into holding rooms; they were then brought into a big hall and grouped according to where they came from so that they could stand in line and wait for their information to be taken at the screening station where the girls worked; the braceros would hand a paper to the girls, and they would ask basic biographical questions and type out the answers; the girls would then hand the paper back to the workers so they could take it to the next station; oftentimes, the girls would get bored of asking the same questions, and they would ask about the men’s scars or wives to break the monotony; although the girls never saw much of what happened beyond their station, they had heard about the braceros being fumigated; the girls also mention that their uncle had a store downtown, which was often frequented by braceros.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto de Loera was born on April 16, 1940, in Calvillo, Aguascalientes, México; his father was a farmer who taught him how to work the land; he went to school only through the third grade, and from then on spent his time helping his father on the farm; in 1959, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero he worked in Arizona, California, and Texas, picking beets, cotton, lemons, lettuce, and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Mr. De Loera recalls his childhood and adolescence; in 1959, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; in order to begin the hiring process, he traveled from Aguascalientes to Empalme, Sonora, México; once he arrived at the processing center in Empalme, he underwent medical exams, including blood samples and x-rays; he also mentions that he was deloused and stripped in front of others as part of the medical procedures; upon being hired, he was transported by cargo train to the border along with thousands of other workers; the train had wooden benches, and he comments that the ride made him feel as though he was being treated like an animal; as a bracero, his first work contract took him to California where he picked beets and tomatoes; his subsequent contracts took him to Arizona to pick lettuce, Texas to pick cotton, and he then returned to California to pick lemons; each time he was contracted he went through the center in Empalme, Sonora, and once he went through Monterrey, Nuevo León, México; he describes the various contract lengths, amendments, extensions, and stipulations; in addition, he explains the difference between hourly and contractual pay wages; he recalls one incident when he injured his leg and was unable to work for a month; although he was not paid for the days he did not work, the doctor bill was paid; when he returned to México, he worked in the fields and in construction, but in 1971, he crossed into the United States illegally to work.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto Magallón was born on April 23, 1927, in Jalisco, México; when he was five years old, he began working by helping his father on the farm; he went to school through the third grade; sometime later, while working illegally in California, he was taken to Calexico, California, to obtain legal documentation; he continued working on and off as a bracero throughout California; as a bracero, he picked lemons, lettuce, onions, and oranges. Summary of Interview: Mr. Magallón briefly describes his childhood growing up on a farm; he recalls having heard of positive experiences from people who had come to work in the United States; sometime later, he crossed illegally into the United States through Mexicali, Baja California, México, in order to work; while there, he and other workers were taken to Calexico, California, in order to obtain proper documentation; he remembers literally stepping across the border and back again before being taken to the processing center in El Centro, California; after his first six month contract ended, he returned to México, and he again went through the processing center in Calexico; he also describes the contracting centers he went through in Hermosillo and Empalme, Sonora, México, including the interviews, medical exams, delousing procedures, and transportation services; in addition, he also details what the living conditions were like in the camps and how he had to pay for the equipment he needed to work; furthermore, he goes on to explain the various types of work he performed and the corresponding wages he earned; he concludes by detailing what life in México was like for him after having worked as a bracero, and why he ultimately decided to live in the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto Mendoza was born on September 7, 1933, in Tizapotla, Morelos, México; his father fought in the Mexican Revolution under Emiliano Zapata’s army; he inherited land from his father, but suffered many hardships with it due to droughts and floods; later, he worked in a chalk factory; he joined the bracero program in 1959, and worked in Arizona, California and Texas. Summary of Interview: Mr. Mendoza recalls his childhood in Tizapotla, Morelos, México, and memories of his father, a soldier in Emiliano Zapata’s army during the Mexican Revolution; he remembers the hardships he suffered while working the land his father left him, and the impact bad weather had on his farming; additionally, he details how he worked in factories, and his decision to join the bracero program; he enlisted in 1959, and relates the process he went through to get hired in Cuernavaca, Morelos, México, as well as the fumigation performed on him at the United States border; he describes working in Arizona, California, and Texas picking strawberries and other crops; he discusses his life in the program, and how he was forced to return to México when he became ill due to the food they received in the camps; furthermore, he states that he returned to the U.S. as an undocumented worker after the program was terminated; he concludes by expressing his disappointment at not having made the most of his opportunities during the program, and not having saved more money.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto Miguel Marcial came from a wealthy family and had five siblings; his father and grandfather worked in agriculture and owned a lot of land; when he was two years old, his father died; his grandfather later passed away as well, leaving his mother alone; Alberto went to school very briefly, and later as an adult he learned to read, write, and speak English; as a bracero, he worked in California and Colorado, picking beets, cantaloupe, onions, and potatoes; although he worked illegally for a time in the United States, he was able to obtain legal documentation and eventually become a citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Marcial briefly mentions his family and childhood; his father and grandfather died, leaving his mother alone, but she later remarried; Alberto’s step-father worked as a bracero, and when he returned from a contract, Alberto decided to leave as well; he walked for two days to get a contract in Oaxaca, México; from there he was transported by train to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, where he stayed for a few days; when leaving Oaxaca, people told him to buy cigarettes if he could, because they were scarce in the United States due to the war; he was able to sell them to soldiers and make some money; as a bracero, he worked in California and Colorado, picking beets, cantaloupe, onions, and potatoes; he goes on to detail various worksites, living arrangements, housing, amenities, provisions, friendships, daily routines, duties, treatment, recreational activities, and correspondence with family members; in addition, he mentions that for the first fifteen days of one of his contracts, he and other men ate at a restaurant every day until they had earned enough money to buy their own food; when his contract in Colorado ended he asked for a transfer to Fresno, California, so he could find his brother, which he eventually did; sometime after the program ended, he worked illegally in the United States, but he was caught by immigration officials; they helped him obtain legal documentation, and he ultimately became a U.S. citizen.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto Montes was born on September 14, 1928, in Huejuquilla el Alto, Jalisco, México; he is the oldest of eight siblings; he never attended formal schooling, and began working in agriculture at age eleven; in 1953, he enlisted in the bracero program; he worked in New Mexico picking cotton. Summary of Interview: Mr. Montes recalls growing up in Huejuquilla el Alto, Jalisco, México with seven siblings; he states that at age eleven he began working in agriculture; he explains that he heard about the bracero program in 1952, and decided to enlist in 1953; additionally, he details what the hiring process was like in Empalme, Sonora, México; he describes what the medical exams were like, the process he went through, and his trip to the border; furthermore, he remembers working in New Mexico picking cotton, and what his daily work day was like; he presents what food braceros had, what their living arrangements were like, and how they were treated; moreover, he recounts the discrimination he experienced; he concludes by stating that he has fond memories of the program, and that after repeated trips to the United States, he decided to stay in San Jose, California.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alejandro Hernández was born July 10, 1927, in Durango, México; he was the first born of his four siblings; in 1936, when he was nine years old, his father died; as the eldest, he began working by helping care for livestock, in order to help support his family; consequently, he was formally educated only through the second grade; by the time he was eleven years old, he was working in the fields picking cotton; in 1950, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the alfalfa and cotton fields of Las Cruces, New Mexico, cleaning, pruning, watering and picking for ten years; in 1954, he married a woman he met in El Paso, Texas; they had three boys while he was a bracero, and later they had two more boys and three girls, eight children in total. Summary of Interview: Mr. Hernández talks about his family and how much he suffered growing up; he initially learned about the bracero program through the radio; in 1950, he and a friend went to Chihuahua, México to earn money picking cotton; from there they went to the contracting center in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, which was situated in an abandoned racetrack; among the thousands waiting, they found some friends that were already on a list of workers; two men from the list were missing and they easily took their place; Alejandro describes crossing into El Paso, Texas, where he was stripped, examined and deloused; from there he was transported in trailers used for animals to Las Cruces, New Mexico; as a bracero, he labored in the alfalfa and cotton fields of Las Cruces, cleaning, pruning, watering and picking for ten years; he goes on to detail housing, accommodations, living conditions, duties, routines, payments, deductions, remittances, treatment, contract lengths and renewals, friendships, working relationships and recreational activities, including trips into town; in addition, he recounts several anecdotes about his experiences; moreover, he talks about the woman he met in El Paso, Texas and visited every week until they finally married in 1954; they had three boys while he was a bracero, and later they had two more boys and three girls, eight children in total.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alejandro Ruteaga was born on April 12, 1932, in Rodeo, Durango, México; he was the third of ten siblings; at the age of eight, he began helping his father with agricultural tasks; when he was eighteen, he crossed the border into the United States to become an undocumented worker in California; he entered the bracero program in 1953, and he worked in Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Louisiana, Michigan, Nebraska, New Mexico, Texas, and Wyoming; his jobs included picking almonds, apricots, asparagus, cauliflower, cotton, grapes, lettuce, olives, and strawberries; he performed these duties until 1964. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ruteaga recalls his childhood and the stories his father told about the Mexican Revolution; in 1953, he entered the bracero program; he describes the hiring process in Durango, Durango, México, the requirements, and the medical exams performed by American doctors at Rio Vista, a processing center in Socorro, Texas; he worked in Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Louisiana, Michigan, Nebraska, New Mexico, Texas and Wyoming; additionally, he recounts daily activities, what braceros did on weekends, their contracts, and their wages; he states that ranchers hired undocumented workers along with braceros; furthermore, he relates how representatives from the Mexican consulate visited their camps to settle their complaints; he also discusses the discrimination the braceros suffered; addressing his time after the program, he explains why he became an undocumented worker, his thoughts on why ranchers hire undocumented workers, and his pride in having been a bracero; he concludes by stating his reasons for living in México and not migrating to the United States.