Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Martín Conejo is the son of Ernesto Conejo, who was a bracero during the late fifties and early sixties; Martin’s father, Ernesto, was born on a ranch, just outside of Morelia, Michoacán, México; his father died when he was young, and as the eldest of his siblings, he became the head of the family; he worked in a bicycle factory for a time before hearing about the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in Michigan, Texas, and Wisconsin, picking apples, corn, and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martín Conejo is the son of Ernesto Conejo, who was a bracero during the late fifties and early sixties; Martín explains how much he admires his father for having been able to successfully work as a bracero in the United States in spite of the fact that he only had a third grade education; Ernesto was the first person from his ranch to work in the United States; he was initially contracted in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México; while there he was physically examined and asked questions about his work experience; as a bracero, he worked in Michigan, Texas, and Wisconsin, picking apples, corn, and tomatoes; after every contract, he would return to México; on occasions when he had to walk through the desert, he would survive on water and powder ground from garbanzo beans for three or four days; Martín goes on to describe his father’s memories of the different worksites, payment schedules, housing, living amenities, provisions, treatment, and remittances; he mentions an instance where there were problems with a foreman who would cheat the workers out of money; because Ernesto was a good cook, he would often leave work early to begin preparing meals while his fellow workers covered for him; in spite of this, he did witness tension between Mexicans even though there was plenty of work; overall, Ernesto spoke well of the bracero program; he was eventually able to arrange for his entire family to legally immigrate to the United States.
Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Aguileo Nambo was born on October 15, 1941, in Cuitzeo, Michoacán, México; he was the youngest of five siblings, and his parents were farmers; when he was a child, his father worked in California and Illinois for a brief time; in approximately 1960, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero he worked primarily in California, but also obtained short contracts to work in Arizona; he labored in the fields picking asparagus, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, and squash; although he had no intentions of staying in the United States when the program finished, he and his family eventually emigrated in the late seventies. Summary of Interview: Mr. Nambo briefly discusses his family and adolescence; when he was about fifteen years old, he and his older brother went to pick cotton in Sonora, México, and he was able to get his military service ID early; he traveled to Empalme, Sonora, and he paid money to get his name on the county’s list of available workers; while waiting there, he endured harsh conditions, but some of the men that were not called were left without any money or way to get back home; as a bracero he worked primarily in California, but he also obtained short contracts to work in Arizona; he labored in the fields picking asparagus, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, and squash; he also describes the various worksites, living conditions, provisions, payment, treatment, and remittances; moreover he details how people from a local store would send transportation to the camp on payday; working as a bracero provided him with the opportunity to help maintain his family; he becomes very emotional upon describing one instance in which he witnessed a man being severely mistreated, but he was too embarrassed to do anything; in spite of all that he suffered, his overall memories of being a bracero are positive; although he had no intentions of staying in the United States when the program finished, he and his family eventually emigrated in the late seventies.
José Marín Zepeda was born in Sinaloa, México, but he was raised in Mexicali, Baja California, México; his father served in the bracero program; José had two siblings; his formal education extended through the fifth grade; during the 1960s, he also enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California, picking asparagus, cotton, dates, strawberries and tomatoes; in 1970, he returned to the United States and arranged for legal status; sometime later, he married and eventually had four children, two boys and two girls. Summary of Interview: Mr. Marín talks about his life in México, including his various odd jobs; he initially learned about the bracero program through newspaper announcements; during the 1960s, after completing his military service, he went to Empalme, Sonora, México with a group of roughly four hundred men to pick cotton and get the necessary papers to enlist in the program; upon arriving in the United States, he was inspected like a piece of fruit and fumigated; many men were embarrassed by the entire process; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California, picking asparagus, cotton, dates, strawberries and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the various worksites, housing, accommodations, amenities, provisions, duties, treatment, payments, deductions, remittances and recreational activities, including trips into town; before leaving, his father had told him to go to Coachella, California, and say he was a palmero, or date picketer, even though he was not, because he could learn on the job; he enjoyed working as a palmero and explains that Levi’s were best to use, because they were especially durable; in addition, he used special boots; he also recalls going into town to see Spanish movies with some of the locals; on occasion, his mom was able to visit him, because she had a passport; he also recounts his life after the program; in 1970, he returned to the United States and arranged for legal status; sometime later, he married and eventually had four children, two boys and two girls; overall, he has positive memories of the program, because he learned a lot about different kinds of work.
Ismael Rodríguez Rico is the eldest of his three brothers; when he was six years old, his father died; afterward, he and his brothers worked wherever they could; eventually, Ismael enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arkansas, California and Texas, cleaning, pruning and picking asparagus, beets, cotton, lettuce and tomatoes; he later immigrated to the United States, and he was ultimately able to obtain legal status. Summary of Interview: Mr. Rodríguez talks about his childhood and how sad it was, including his father’s death when he was only six years old; as a young man, he looked for work wherever he could find it; when he learned about the bracero program, he saw it as an opportunity to save money and help his family; in order to join, he had to put himself on the list of eligible workers; as part of the contracting process, he had to present his birth certificate, proof of military service and other documents; in addition, he was medically examined and deloused; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arkansas, California and Texas, cleaning, pruning and picking asparagus, beets, cotton, lettuce and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the various worksites, camp sizes, housing, duties, payments, correspondence and trips into town; while in Texas, he worked by contract, which enabled him to stop and rest when necessary; in contrast, when getting paid by the hour, foremen were constantly watching him, forcing him to stay hunched over and not allowing him to straighten up; in Arkansas, he and other men were given small notebooks to keep track of the amount of cotton they picked; in some camps, it was so hot that the men had to take salt pills; moreover, he mentions that his time as a bracero was very lonely, especially because the camps were so isolated from the towns, which left them surrounded by darkness; he later immigrated to the United States, and he was ultimately able to obtain legal status.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Simón Acosta was born on Zicorato, Sinaloa, México, in March 5, 1938; he was the oldest of 13 siblings; his parents worked in agriculture; he became a bracero in 1959 and worked in California; he picked beets, cotton, oranges, and cut lettuce. Summary of Interview: Mr. Acosta remembers how he heard about the bracero program in Sinaloa, México, and how he traveled to Sonora to get contracted; he relates how he had to pick cotton to earn his card for contracting and how the process was conducted in Empalme, Sonora, México; moreover, he states how the processing center at El Centro, California worked, how he was fumigated with a spray, and that he had blood drawn when crossing the border into the United States; he recalls working in California picking beets, oranges and cutting lettuce; furthermore, he goes on to discuss how daily life was for the braceros, how they listened to the radio for entertainment, and that they walked into town to buy goods; he also states what his pay was like as a bracero and how he was treated by foremen; additionally, he expresses what his life was like after his work as a bracero, how he became legalized, and the pay he received in the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José María Aguilar García was born on March 19, 1933, in Casa Blanca, Michoacán, México; his parents were campesinos on a small ranch where he and his ten siblings were born; when he was roughly eight years old, his mother died; although he did not know how to read or write, he did learn how to work in agriculture and care for livestock; for a short time his father and brother were braceros; in the early fifties he also enlisted in the bracero program, and he primarily worked in California; after the program ended he was able to obtain legal documentation and permanently settle in the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Aguilar briefly recalls his family and childhood; he talks about coming to Brawley, California, illegally when he was nineteen years old and learning how to clean and prune lettuce crops; his time in Brawley served him greatly, because not only did he learn how to care for crops, he was also able to obtain a new eighteen month contract from his boss there while he was working another forty-five day contract in Arizona; on several occasions he passed through the reception center in Calexico, California, which he describes as very bad, primarily because of the way they were deloused; he goes on to chronicle the various worksites, living and housing conditions, provisions, treatment, duties, payments, deductions, remittances, contract renewals, and recreational activities; in addition, he mentions working in Salinas, California, when his father became ill and receiving a three day pass from his employer to visit him in Mexicali, Baja California, México; he also discusses an instance in which the food made him sick; when he complained, he was transferred to a new work location; after the program ended he was able to obtain legal documentation and permanently settle in the United States; overall, he has positive memories of having worked as a bracero, because he was able to send his children to school and generally help his entire family live a better life.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Agustín Bautista was born in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, México; he is the youngest sibling in his family; in 1943, he joined the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, California, Oregon, and Texas on the railroads; he also picked cotton, lemons and strawberries. Summary of Interview: Mr. Agustín Bautista recalls growing up in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, México; he states that he is the youngest sibling in his family; additionally, he explains that he was contracted for the first time on 1943, at Empalme, Sonora, México; he details how the contracting and processing of braceros was done, the treatment they received in Empalme, and how they were transported to the United States-México border; furthermore, he explains how officials had braceros shave their heads before crossing into the United States to prevent lice from spreading and how they were deloused; he relates how he worked in Arizona, California, Oregon, and Texas on the railroads and picking cotton, lemons, and strawberries; moreover, he states the work that he did while working on railroad tracks, how hard it was, and the dangers of it; he also describes what daily life was like for braceros, the living quarters they had, the food they ate, and what they did for recreation; in addition, he relates the difficulty of the agricultural work braceros did, the pay they received and the deductions made to his paycheck for food; furthermore, he states how he received ten percent of his paycheck that had been deducted for savings when he returned to México in between contracting; he clarifies that this only happened once, though; to conclude, he recounts how he returned to the United States as a legal migrant after the program ended.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Marcelino Burciaga was born on September 24, 1938, in Canatlan, Durango, México; his father was a carpenter and a shoemaker; he is the youngest of three brothers; from 1961 to 1962, he worked as a bracero in California picking cucumbers, green beans, lemons, and oranges. Summary of Interview: Mr. Burciaga recalls growing up in Canatlan, Durango, México; he states that his father was a carpenter and a shoemaker; at an early age, he began working in agriculture; he states that in 1961 he decided to join the bracero program because of financial difficulties; he describes being contracted in Mexicali, Baja California, México and being sent to Empalme, Sonora, México for processing; while in Empalme, he states that he was given medical exams; he details the treatment he received in that center, and then he explains how he was transported to the United States-México border; once he became a bracero, he worked in California picking cucumbers, green beans, lemons, and oranges from 1961 to 1962; furthermore, he relates what a typical workday was for him as a bracero, the type of work that he did, and how he was treated by foremen; he also discusses the pay he received for his labor and the food he was given; moreover, he states what he did for recreation, and how he would spend his days off doing laundry and going to the movies; he remembers saving money and having ten percent of his pay deducted from each paycheck; he concludes by explaining what the program meant for him.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Catarino Jauregui Durán was born on March 22, 1934, in Nochistlán [de Mejía], Zacatecas, México; he had eight siblings, and his eldest brother was an undocumented worker for the railroads in San Francisco, California; in 1954, he enlisted as a bracero, like his father; while in the bracero program he labored in the fields of California picking celery, tomatoes, and strawberries; he worked on and off with the program until 1962, at which point he established residency, and continued working for the same employer until 1982. Summary of Interview: Mr. Jauregui briefly talks about his family and adolescence; several people in his community worked as braceros and returned home with new clothes and money, which was what he wanted for himself; in 1954, when he was twenty years old, he took a bus from his hometown to Mexicali, Baja California, México, where he enlisted in the bracero program; his first contract took him to Sacramento, California, to pick tomatoes for a cannery; later he worked in Stockton and Tracy, California; he goes on to describe how tiring it was to stay hunched over all day working in the fields; in addition, he details the various worksites, duties, housing, amenities, provisions, treatment, payment, remittances, friendships, and recreational activities; when his contract ended he returned to México; in 1957, he went through the center in Empalme, Sonora, and he went to Oxnard, California, to pick strawberries; while there, members of the Mexican consul helped him renew his contract without having to return to México; at the time, his father was also working as a bracero in Coachella, California; his father was able to arrange for the two of them to work together on the same farm; in 1960, his father returned to México, and he stayed in Coachella; two years later, his employer helped him obtain legal residency; even so, he decided to stay working in the same place for the next twenty years; he concludes by stating that he has been very happy in the United States, and he is greatly indebted to this country.
Fortino Covarrubias was born on a ranch by name of Santa María de Gracia in Teocaltiche, Jalisco, México; he was born into a family of agriculturalists and had nine brothers; his father worked in the United States for a time, and one of his older brothers was a bracero; in 1959, when he was roughly nineteen years old, he also enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he completed one contract and labored in the fields of California, picking grapes, strawberries and tomatoes; he ultimately returned to the United States and became a citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Covarrubias recalls growing up and seeing several of the men in his community going to work in the United States, which inspired him to do the same; in 1949, shortly after completing his military service, he enlisted in the bracero program; he went to Empalme, Sonora, México, where he suffered greatly during the four months he waited for a contract; upon crossing into the United States, he was stripped, medically examined and deloused, like an animal; as a bracero, he completed one contract and labored in the fields of California, picking grapes, strawberries and tomatoes; he goes on to detail camp size, housing, provisions, duties, routines, treatment, friendships, payments, remittances, contract lengths and renewals and recreational activities, including trips into town; his first two weeks of working were especially strenuous, because he was hunched over for hours at a time, which was extremely painful; he and others often ate fruits and vegetables from nearby fields while they worked; on occasion, women would go to the camps at night without permission; he compares the life they led of restriction to that of a communist society; when his contract ended, his boss offered to help him legally immigrate, but he refused and later regretted his decision; afterward, it was too difficult to get a new contract, so he came without documents; he admits that it was easier without a contract, because he had more freedom; ultimately, he returned to the United States and became a citizen.
Juan Contreras was born in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, México; his father was in the military, and the family consequently moved around a lot; Juan later enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Washington picking various fruits and vegetables; while in Oregon, he worked for Libby’s picking fruits; he later immigrated to the United States, married and raised a family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Contreras initially learned about the bracero program through a friend and went to enlist; a few weeks later, he received a telegram telling him to go to the Buena Vista station in México, Distrito Federal, where he volunteered for Exterior Relations; later, he traveled by train to the United States; Mexican soldiers watched over the seven cars with roughly eighty men in each; by the time they reached El Paso, Texas, only three or four cars were left; he did not have to endure any physical exams; however, he later went through the center in Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, and he was stripped, examined and shaved for lice; he was given special preference, because he had already worked in the United States; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Washington picking various fruits and vegetables; he goes on to detail the various worksites, camp sizes, housing, accommodations, amenities, provisions, duties, treatment, payments, remittances and recreational activities, including trips into town; while in Portland, Oregon, he worked for Libby’s picking fruit that was later canned; the bed linens were changed every three days; they also had ice cream parties and other social events, including dance lessons; in Utah, women often went to the camps, and they were rumored to be especially fond of Mexican men; while in Arizona, he was refused service at a restaurant and noticed a discriminatory sign; he and others complained to the Mexican consul, and the sign was removed; in addition, he relates other anecdotes about his experiences as a bracero; he later immigrated to the United States, married and raised a family.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Mateo Murillo Lamas was born on September 21, 1916, in Valparaíso, Zacatecas, México; when he was roughly twenty years old, he moved to México, Distrito Federal; in 1942, while there, he was taken at gunpoint by Mexican officials and transported by train the United States to enlist in the bracero program; he continued voluntarily working as a bracero through the midfifties, primarily in the cotton and lettuce fields of Arizona, California, and Colorado; in 1989, he became a U.S. citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Murillo vividly recalls being in México, Distrito Federal, in 1942, when he was taken at gunpoint by Mexican officials and loaded into a train; there were roughly one thousand men aboard, and by the time they reached California, there were only two hundred men, at most, because so many had jumped off the train; as he was about to be transported to his worksite, American officials asked if he would be willing to take arms and help the United States should the need arise; he agreed and signed a paper that put him on a reserve list, but he was never called to action; in spite of his initial recruitment, he continued voluntarily working as a bracero through the midfifties, primarily in the cotton and lettuce fields of Arizona, California, and Colorado; he goes on to chronicle the various worksites, living and working conditions, duties, daily routines, treatment, payments, contract renewals, and recreational activities; in addition, he mentions receiving a portion of his salary in the form of stamps that he could use to purchase clothing or shoes according to a rationing schedule; he also comments that in the years following the war braceros were generally not treated as well, because their impending necessity was no longer at issue; moreover, he explains how he was ultimately able to use his previous work history to become a U.S. citizen in 1989; he also asserts that braceros not only supported the economy of both countries, but of the war as well.
Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso