María del Carmen Velázquez
subject: Wife of a bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: María del Carmen Velázquez was born on a small ranch in Las Jaritas, in the municipality of Lagos de Moreno, México; she has six siblings, and her parents owned livestock and worked in agriculture; her father hired a tutor for the children, which only lasted a short while; when she was sixteen years old, she married José Bartolo Velázquez, who enlisted in the bracero program. Summary of Interview: Ms. Velázquez briefly describes her childhood and family; she recalls being young and naïve enough to believe that coming to the United States guaranteed money; when she was sixteen years old, she married José Bartolo Velázquez; shortly after their nuptials, he went to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the bracero program; while he was away, she and her ten children lived with her father; she remembers not having enough money for cloth diapers, having to tear up whatever clothes she could find, and constantly washing; what little money he did manage to send she used to buy necessities for the children; they were eventually able to save up enough money to buy a small home, which she lent to a friend while she lived with her father; it was difficult for her to care for so many children alone; she recalls going with them to visit an uncle; he told them all to go home early, because they were too unruly and too much to handle; even so, her children helped when they could; she relates one instance when her son went into the city alone to sell paletas, and he did not return until very late, which worried her greatly; much to her surprise, he came home with beans, tortillas, tomatoes, and chiles for the family to eat; she also helped support the family by ironing and washing, but because she washed by hand her fingers often bled; her husband would write letters home, and she would have her sister respond, because she did not know how to write; she concludes by stating that she and her family suffered greatly in her husband’s absence.
creator: Loza, Mireya
creator: Velázquez, María del Carmen
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Perfecta Rivas de Rodríguez
subject: Daughter of a bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Perfecta Rivas de Rodríguez was born in Valparaíso, Zacatecas, México, on December 11, 1947; her mother, Consuelo Garcia, was a housewife, and her father, Juan Rivas Bañuelo, made marble headstones for cemeteries; Perfecta is the eldest of her twelve siblings; in the midfifties her father enlisted in the bracero program, which financially helped her family; later, in the early seventies she immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Ms. Rivas de Rodríguez briefly discusses her family and childhood; she recalls hearing about the courtship between her mother and father; in the midfifties her father enlisted in the bracero program, which financially helped her family, and they were able to move out of her paternal grandfather’s home and into their own; she remembers that there were always notices around town to sign up for the program; the men had to stay anywhere between eight and fifteen days in Empalme, Sonora, México; while waiting some men ate banana peels or nothing at all, and they used cardboard as blankets; the fumigations they underwent were also difficult, but necessity drove them; when her father left, the entire family was sad and worried about what could happen to him; upon receiving their first letter from him they were elated and relieved; every fifteen days her father sent letters and money home; her mother cashed the money orders at local stores, because they offered a better dollar to peso ratio than the banks; at the time they were able to receive twelve pesos for every dollar, which went a long way; with this money, some of her younger siblings were even able to attend secondary schools; they were able to buy their necessities instead of having to depend on whatever the crops would yield if there was even enough rain in a given season; one of her father’s employers offered to help him and his family obtain legal documentation, but her grandfather did not want to let them leave; overall, her family b…
creator: Esparza, Araceli
creator: Rivas de Rodríguez, Perfecta
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Carlos Villagomes Fuentes
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Carlos Villagomes was born on November 18, 1932, in Uriangato, Guanajuato; he is the eldest of his five siblings; while going to school, he helped his father work the land, and as a result received very little formal education; his uncles served in the bracero program, and he wanted to follow in their footsteps in the hopes of financially helping his family; he worked off and on with the program from 1952 to 1955; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California, Michigan, Texas, and Wyoming, picking beets, cotton, cucumbers, lemons, and lettuce; in 1962, with the help of his brother, he was able to emigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Villagomes briefly describes his family, childhood, and adolescence; he becomes emotional and cries upon recalling his decision to become a bracero in the hopes of financially helping his family; initially, he went through the contracting center in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, to enlist as a bracero; he goes on to explain the requirements, general exams, including immunizations and delousing procedures, and the overall process he underwent at the various centers he went through; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California, Michigan, Texas, and Wyoming, picking beets, cotton, cucumbers, lemons, and lettuce; he details the different worksites, duties, payment, deductions, treatment, contract renewals, living conditions, provisions, remittances, recreational activities, and relationships; in addition, he mentions having to carry his mica card or contract with him wherever he went; he also describes how the foremen were often very hard on all the workers; there was one instance in which he volunteered to help in Oxnard, California, after a huge fire, and he was paid very well for his work; in 1962, with the help of his brother, he was able to emigrate to the United States; overall, his memories of the program are positive, and he considers it a great satisfaction and…
creator: Cachu, Ivonne
creator: Villagomes Fuentes, Carlos
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Nicolás Saldaña Sandoval
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Nicolás Saldaña was born on a small ranch just outside of Tlaltenango, Zacatecas, México; he has three sisters and one brother; as a child he helped work the land and care for the animals; in 1957, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington, picking corn, cotton, and pears. Summary of Interview: Mr. Saldaña describes his very humble upbringing; his father was an undocumented worker in the United States and initially sent money home to his family, but he eventually stopped; his mother and sisters were left on their own, and he weeps at the recollection of how much they suffered; in 1957, he decided to enlist as a bracero with the hopes of earning money to help his family; he explains what he went through at the different processing centers in México, including paying money to gather all the required documents, the hundreds of thousands of men waiting for contracts, how hard it was waiting for weeks on end, and enduring harsh conditions throughout the entire time; in addition, he depicts his ride on a train without seats, the lingering smell of the animals that had previously been in there, and how the straw used to feed the animals was left on the floor of the train when he boarded; upon arriving in the United States, he recounts how he was examined, deloused, and taken to a holding area where ranchers would pick the workers they wanted; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington, picking corn, cotton, and pears; he goes on to describe the various worksites, duties, payment, living conditions, and provisions; while working in Medford, Oregon, picking pears, he fell off a fifteen foot ladder; although he was not seriously injured, he was given monetary compensation; while working as a bracero, he was able to communicate with his mother and sister who had since emigrated to the United States; upon finishing one of his contracts he had to return to México and cons…
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Saldaña Sandoval, Nicolás
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Jesús Rivera López
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Rivera López was born on October 7, 1934, in Corrales, Juchitlán, Jalisco, México; he is the eldest of his five brothers; from 1942 to 1953 his father worked in the bracero program; in 1956, against his father’s wishes, he also enlisted in the program; he labored primarily in the fields of California picking a variety of fruits and vegetables until 1963; later, in 1970, he moved to Los Angeles, California. Summary of Interview: Mr. Rivera talks about his father who became a permanent resident of the United States in the early 1900s and was repatriated during the massive deportations of the 1930s; in 1942, his father returned to the United States as a bracero and stayed with the program until 1953; as the eldest son, Jesús was left to care for his family while his father was away; in 1956, against his father’s wishes, he went to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist as a bracero; he describes the difficulties of surviving while waiting as well as the rudeness of the exams; from there he was transported in an already full cargo train to Mexicali, Baja California, México, and he had to stand for the entire trip, which was more than twelve hours; in El Centro, California, he was medically examined again and fumigated; he goes on to detail the various worksites, living conditions, housing provisions, duties, daily routines, payments, and contract renewals; more specifically, he discusses how incredibly grueling it was to stay hunched over all day and not being allowed to stand; by the end of the day he could no longer sit or lay down; moreover, he explains that when he packed tomatoes in Patterson, California, each box weighed forty-five pounds, each truck held eight hundred and sixty boxes, and he had to pack three to four trucks a day, in an eight hour span, all the while the trucks continued moving; he encountered a similar situation in Blythe, California, when packing boxes of alfalfa that weighed seventy-five to eighty pounds…
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Rivera López, Jesús
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Heriberto Rivas Lugo
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Heriberto Rivas Lugo was born on July 4, 1935, in Arivechi, Sonora, México; he is the eldest of his five sisters and three brothers; his parents were agricultural workers; although he liked school, he was formally educated only through the sixth grade; when he was sixteen, he came to the United States illegally, and he continued working there for a few years; later, in 1955, he obtained a bracero contract; by 1958, he was able to legally immigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Rivas briefly chronicles his family and childhood; during his adolescence he saw no future for himself in helping his dad work the land nor did he see the opportunity to further his education; when he was sixteen, he came to the United States illegally; he was caught by immigration officials, and they told him about the bracero program; in 1955, he was able to obtain a bracero contract in Hermosillo, Sonora, México; he describes sneaking into the center, because there were more than twenty thousand men, and he knew he would not make it; he was then transported by train to Mexicali, Baja California, México, and then to Calexico, California; while there he was medically examined, which included being x-rayed and fumigated; initially, the work was very difficult, because he did not know what to do; after completing an eighteen month contract, he had to return to México, but his boss gave him a card that allowed him to quickly pass through the contracting center and return to the United States in three days; he explains that there were about five hundred braceros at the camp, and of those, sixty-five, including himself, were chosen to stay year-round; moreover, he details the living and working conditions, housing, provisions, duties, daily routines, payments, and deductions; in addition, he describes the entire process he underwent to obtain legal documentation; by 1958, he was able to immigrate to the United States.
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Rivas Lugo, Heriberto
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Nemencio Meza
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Nemencio Meza was born on October 31, 1931, in Molcaxac, Puebla, México; he has two brothers and two sisters; his parents worked in the fields planting barley, beans, corn, and wheat; he was formally educated through the second grade; in 1959, he enlisted in the bracero program, where he continued working on and off until 1962; he primarily labored in the fields of California picking various fruits and vegetables; during the mideighties his entire family immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Meza very briefly discusses his family; in 1959, he and his father went to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the bracero program; although they were both sent to California, they worked in different cities; he talks about braceros generally being mistreated throughout the contracting process, because the medical exams were painful, money was frequently stolen from them, they were often left hungry, and in Calexico, California, they were stripped and deloused; they endured whatever they had to out of necessity; the camps, unfortunately, were not much better; as a bracero, he worked on and off from 1959 to 1962, primarily in California picking various fruits and vegetables; he goes on to detail various worksites, housing, provisions, duties, daily routines, payments, deductions, remittances, contract renewals, and recreational activities; once, while on a forty-five day contact, he left after only thirty days, because he was treated so badly; he also describes the grueling use of the short hoe, which was only about two feet long, and having to be hunched over all day; in addition, he states that some braceros spoke Náhuatl, not Spanish, and did not always have an interpreter; he goes on to explain how his hometown had changed as a result of the program, including new homes, paved roads, mail service, phones, and the advent of government operated stores known as CONASUPO, Compañia Nacional de Subsistencia Popular; durin…
creator: Loza, Mireya
creator: Meza, Nemencio
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Nicolás Martínez
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Nicolás Martínez was born on September 9, 1926, in Puebla, México; he came from a family of campesinos, whose main crops were beans and corn; when he was roughly thirty-five years old, he enlisted in the bracero program; after the program ended, he traveled back and forth between the United States and México in order to work; he later became a U.S. citizen; in addition, he became involved with different civic organizations intended to help field workers. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez begins by stating that many men left their homes in México, because there was not enough work to support their families; when he was roughly thirty-five years old, he enlisted in the bracero program; he explains that in order to get on the list of eligible workers in his home town he had to work in the fields there; once he was on that list, along with several hundred other men, he went through the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México; after waiting for up to one month, he was transported to Mexicali, Baja California, México, where he and the other men were treated like livestock; the medical exams were particularly embarrassing, because they were stripped in front of everyone and fumigated; the testicular exams were especially difficult and painful; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arkansas, California, and Michigan, picking apples, beets, cotton, cucumbers, lettuce, and peaches; he goes on to detail the various worksites, housing, provisions, payments, deductions, remittances, contract renewals, and recreational activities; more specifically, he reveals that after four or five months of working, employers would bring women into the camps for the men; in addition, he explains that if there were any complaints, the Mexican government would send investigators to look into the allegations; he also describes the various jobs he had after the program ended, and how he later became part of a group named Hermandad Mexicana, which he…
creator: González, Pablo
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Aurelio Marín Luna
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Aurelio Marín was born on July 27, 1941, in Tepechitlán, Zacatecas, México; he is the eldest of his five brothers and two sisters; he was formally educated for six years, and during that time he helped his father work the land and care for the animals; his father and two of his uncles worked as braceros; at the age of eighteen, he decided to follow in their footsteps with the hopes of earning enough money to return to México and buy land; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona and California, picking grapes, lettuce, and tomatoes; after the bracero program finished in 1964, he came to the United States as an undocumented worker; later in 1967, he was able to emigrate, and he was ultimately able to help the rest of his family do the same. Summary of Interview: Mr. Marín recalls his father and uncles working as braceros; they would often tell him what life was like in the United States; at the age of eighteen, he decided to follow in their footsteps with the hopes of earning enough money to return to México and buy land; after receiving his military ID card and the required letter of recommendation, he went to Empalme, Sonora, México, but he had to pay money and pick cotton before being able to begin the contracting process; there were thousands of men waiting for a contract; the men were examined while there, but they were also given more comprehensive assessments upon arriving in the United States where they were consequently deloused; as a bracero, he worked throughout Arizona and California, picking grapes, lettuce, and tomatoes; he goes on to describe his various worksites, duties, housing, provisions, payment, treatment, remittances, and recreational activities; oftentimes, he was transferred to different locations, but he maintained employment with the same company; after the program ended, he was an undocumented worker for a few years, and he comments on how it was easier to work illegally than as a bracero; in 1967, he was ab…
creator: Velasquez, Steve
creator: Marín Luna, Aurelio
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Sabas Luna
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Sabas Luna was born in 1939, in Tlaltenango [de Sánchez Román], Zacatecas, México; his parents were campesinos whose main crop was corn, and he was the fourth of nine children; he was formally educated through the fourth grade, during which time he also helped his parents work the land; when he was eighteen, he followed in his father’s footsteps and enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arkansas, California, and Texas, picking avocado, cotton, lemons, and tomatoes; he also worked at a dairy caring for livestock; in the late sixties he immigrated to the United States with his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Luna recounts his childhood and adolescence, particularly his experiences as a young campesino; he recalls his dad working as a bracero, which helped his family financially, but left him without a father’s guidance; consequently, he and his older brother had to care for the family and show their younger siblings how to work; at eighteen, he obtained his first bracero contract in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, which took him to Arkansas; it rained too much there for him to earn any money; the following year, he went through a center in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, which took him to a dairy farm just outside of Amarillo, Texas, where he stayed for three years; he initially hesitates to talk about how he was treated at the contracting centers, but he goes on to describe being stripped, medically examined, and deloused, which he found offensive; moreover, he details the various worksites, living conditions, provisions, housing, duties, daily routines, contract renewals, payments, remittances, and recreational activities; after the program ended, he met and married his wife; he stayed with a longing to return to the United States and make a better life for himself and his family; in the late sixties he and his family moved to United States; he notes that he is grateful he did not have a wife …
creator: Benavides Lopez, Corina
creator: Luna, Sabas
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Refugio López de Saldaña-Sandoval
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Refugio López Saldaña Sandoval was born in Tlaltenango [de Sánchez Román], Zacatecas, México, on December 21, 1939; she was the fourth born of her three brothers and two sisters; her father was a metal worker, and her mother was a housewife; she was formally educated through the sixth grade; in addition, she grew up surrounded by a very close-knit family, which included extended relatives; in December of 1958, when she was nineteen years old, she married a man named Nicolás, who served in the bracero program both before and after their marriage. Summary of Interview: Ms. López describes her childhood and adolescence; she recalls meeting Nicolás, her husband, when she was fifteen, and she details their four year courtship; in 1959, a few months after their marriage, he returned to the United States on a new contract; while he was away, she stayed with her parents; shortly after his first return home, she became pregnant; his mother and sister, who lived in Santa Ana, California, insisted that Refugio have the baby in the United States; Refugio was hesitant at first, but she eventually agreed; Nicolás obtained a visitor’s permit and worked at a bakery in San Bernardino, California, while she lived with her mother-in-law in Santa Ana; consequently, all six children were born in the U.S.; Refugio goes on to chronicle the different places she worked and how her husband studied to become a realtor; although she did not suffer very much, because she was surrounded by her family, her husband did; he often cries when reflecting upon his experiences as a bracero; even so, these memories served as motivation for him to work hard so his children would have a better life; traveling to the United States was especially difficult, because he was transported in trains used for animals, which smelled horribly; Refugio concludes by stating that what helped her the most, especially in dealing with the clash between two cultures, was her family and …
creator: Mota, Annabel
creator: López de Saldaña-Sandoval, Refugio
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José Luis Gazca
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Luis Gazca was born on October 22, 1935, in Romita, Guanajuato, México; his parents worked in agriculture; as the eldest son among his six siblings, he went to school for only a brief time, because he had to help support his family; in 1955, he enlisted in the bracero program; he continued working on and off with the program until it ended in 1964; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California and Texas, picking apples, cotton, cucumber, green beans, lettuce, plums, and tomatoes; he later returned to the United States as an undocumented worker, but he was ultimately able to obtain legal status. Summary of Interview: Mr. Gazca describes his family, childhood, and adolescence; in 1955, he decided to enlist in the bracero program; to begin the contracting process, he went to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, where he spent a day, then he traveled to Empalme, Sonora, where he spent roughly three days, before heading to Mexicali, Baja California, and finally to Calexico, California; moreover, he details the different centers he went through as well as the range of procedures he underwent; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California and Texas, picking apples, cotton, cucumber, green beans, lettuce, plums, and tomatoes; in addition, he explains the various worksites, duties, housing, amenities, provisions, treatment, payment, remittances, and recreational activities; more specifically, he mentions being so close to the border, at times, that he could cross over on a bus whenever he had time off; he also talks about a foreman, in Chula Vista, California, that gave him extra work, so he could earn more money to send to his family; while he was in Texas, however, he was always pushed to work harder, which was difficult to do when there was so little to pick and, consequently, even less to earn; he continued working on and off with the program until it ended in 1964; during the late sixties, he returned to the United State…
creator: Rosas, Ana
creator: Gazca, José Luis
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Guadalupe García González
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Guadalupe García was born in La Concha, Sinaloa, México; he was the second eldest of his eleven brothers and three sisters; his parents worked in agriculture and with cattle; he was formally educated through the third grade, but he left school in order to help his family work the land; for a time he was an undocumented worker in California, but he was later able to obtain proper documentation under the bracero program; as a bracero, he continued working throughout California picking celery, lettuce, and tomato, and he also operated heavy machinery, including a Caterpillar; he was ultimately able to emigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. García briefly describes his family; as a child, he recalls hearing about braceros and seeing them pass him by in trains; for a time, he was an undocumented worker in California; in 1953, farmers were fined for hiring such employees, and as a result he was let go; upon returning to México, he began the contracting process for the bracero program in Mexicali, Baja California; he goes on to detail the required documentation, the different contracting centers he went through, the extraordinarily long waiting times, and the thousands of men vying for contracts; in addition, he explains how the medical exams grew more stringent over time and how during the delousing process many men would vomit from the smell; he goes on to describe his various worksites, duties, housing, provisions, payment, treatment, remittances, and recreational activities; moreover, he relates how he was able to buy a car and obtain a driver’s license; although he did have some good employers, the foremen were often mean and mistreated the braceros; he even organized a strike once due to insufficient payment; even so, his memories of having worked as a bracero are positive; he was ultimately able to emigrate to the United States.
creator: Loza, Mireya
creator: García González, Guadalupe
date: 2006-05-11
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Rafael Cortez
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Rafael Cortez was born in Techaluta [de Montenegro], Jalisco, México; some of his family members, including uncles and cousins, came to the United States under the bracero program; Rafael longed to come to the states in the hopes of finding a better life or more aptly stated, to live the American dream; when he was eighteen, he traveled to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the program; as a bracero, he worked on several contracts throughout California and once in Arizona, as well. Summary of Interview: Mr. Cortez describes how the Mexican government would often send notices about forty-five day contracts with the bracero program to various cities throughout the country; upon receiving these announcements, men would travel to designated work locations in order to obtain the necessary paperwork for contracting centers; Rafael went to the center in Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the program; he states that there were over twenty-five thousand men waiting at the center, but there were only between three and five thousand men processed daily; Rafael goes on to describe the medical assessments he underwent while at the center; upon arriving in the United States, he was examined again and deloused; consequently, when blood samples were drawn, many men fainted; after being processed, ranchers would pick and choose which men they wanted to work, like they would animals; the men were singled out based on their size and what crop they would be harvesting; they were then transported by bus to their worksites; as a bracero, Rafael worked on several contracts throughout California and once in Arizona; he details the different cities he was sent to, as well as duties, daily routines, housing, provisions, payment, remittances, and recreational activities; in addition, he states that his initial salary was 75¢ an hour, but he ultimately earned up to $2.25 an hour; moreover, in spite of the fact that none of the men had cars, they woul…
creator: Esparza, Araceli
creator: Cortez, Rafael
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Pedro Benitez
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Pedro Benítez was born in the state of Sinaloa in México; when he was about two years old, his mother died while giving birth to his younger sister; shortly thereafter, his grandmother began to take care of him and his two sisters, and his father abandoned his family not long after his wife died; lamentably, Pedro’s grandmother later passed away as well; he later began picking cotton in the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora, which eventually led him to join the bracero program in the early fifties; after the program ended, he returned to the United States as an undocumented worker, but he ultimately acquired legal status. Summary of Interview: Mr. Benítez vividly describes his childhood, including the deaths of his mother and grandmother, being abandoned by his father, and the various resulting difficulties he and his two sisters faced; he sobs at the recollection of such events; growing up, he wandered from place to place in search of work and a place to stay; he later began picking cotton in the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora; while in Sonora, during the early fifties, he picked two thousand kilograms of cotton, which allowed him to travel to Empalme, Sonora, to enlist in the bracero program; as a bracero, he picked cotton, oranges, and tomatoes; he recalls working in the fields during the conclusion of the Korean War, in 1953; additionally, he goes on to talk about a man, who served as a third party by obtaining contracts from farmers and transporting workers from place to place to pick various crops; furthermore, Pedro also explains how much he struggled, because sometimes, he was paid daily and other times every two weeks; one of his biggest complaints, however, was that sometimes he would not get to the crops until the second or third picking, which always yielded much less money; after the program ended, he returned to the United States as an undocumented worker, but after an amnesty was declared, he was able to …
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Benitez, Pedro
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Jesús Martínez
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Martínez was born on April 7, 1932, in Rincón de Romos, Aguascalientes, México; as a child, he helped his family with the farming duties, which took precedence over attending school; when he was twelve years old, his father died, which forced him to take on more family responsibilities, including helping to care for his younger siblings; in 1952, he enlisted in the bracero program in order to help support his family; as a bracero he worked with various crops in Arizona, California, Michigan, Nebraska, and Texas; in addition, he became the foreman for three separate farms; he continued working with the program until 1961, and he was ultimately able to arrange legal residency for his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez describes his family and childhood; in 1952, he enlisted in the bracero program in order to help support his family; he provides a detailed explanation of the necessary documentation to become a bracero, including letters of recommendation; in addition, he describes the various contracting procedures, that consisted of long waiting lines, physical exams, collections of blood samples, and delousing, which was the most embarrassing for him; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, California, Michigan, Nebraska, and Texas; he goes on to discuss wages, living and working conditions, treatment, provisions, remittances, and the range of relationships among employees and employers; eventually, he became the foreman for three separate farms, and he attended an agricultural school in Las Cruces, New Mexico, to learn more about cultivating crops; he continued working with the program until 1961, and he was ultimately able to arrange legal residency for his family; he concludes by expressing the importance of working hard and being honest.
creator: Chew, Selfa
creator: Martínez, Jesús
date: 2005-11-12
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Ramón Ávila Hernández
subject: Bracero
description: Nombre del entrevistado: Ramón Ávila Hernández Fecha de la entrevista: 2 de junio de 2003 Nombre del entrevistador: Laureano Martínez Esta es una entrevista con el señor Ramón Ávila Hernández, en la ciudad de Durango, Durango, el día 2 de junio de 2003, conducida por Laureano Martínez, para el Proyecto Bracero del Instituto de Historia Oral, de la Universidad de Texas en El Paso. LM: Buenas tardes don Ramón, ¿cómo está? RA: Bien, bendito sea Dios. LM: Me gustaría comenzar esta entrevista preguntándole, ¿dónde y cuándo nació? RA: Pos nací en Durango, Durango. LM: ¿Cuándo? RA: El 20 de octubre de 1939. LM: ¿Cuántos años tiene? RA: Voy en sesenta y cuatro, treinta y nueve cumplidos, ya ando en los sesenta y cuatro. LM: ¿Cómo se llama su papá? RA: Ramón Ávila Lizardo. LM: Y, ¿su mamá? RA: Francisca Hernández Reyes. LM: ¿De dónde son originarios ellos? RA: Pos de aquí de Durango, ¿no? 2do: De Zacatecas. RA: ¿Mande? 2do: De Zacatecas. RA: De Zacatecas es mi papá. LM: De Zacatecas, ajá. Y, ¿su mamá? 2do: De aquí de Durango. LM: ¿A qué se dedicaba su papá o a qué se dedica su papá? RA: Bueno, cuando yo tuve uso de razón mi papá trabajaba en el Cerro Mercado. LM: En el Cerro Mercado. Es una mina, ¿verdad? RA: Sí. LM: ¿Qué hacía su papá ahí? RA: Pos era barretero, ¿verdad? LM: Barretero. Y, ¿su mamá? RA: Pos ama de casa. LM: Al hogar. RA: Exactamente. LM: ¿Cuántos fueron ustedes de familia? RA: Catorce. LM: Catorce, ¿cuántos hombres y cuántas mujeres? RA: Somos… 2do: Cuatro hombres. RA: Cuatro hombres y diez mujeres. LM: De esos, ¿tú eres el mayor? RA: El mayor de todos. LM: ¿Fue usted a la escuela, don Ramón? RA: Sí. LM: ¿Hasta qué año? RA: Hasta el cuarto año. LM: Hasta el cuarto año. ¿Por qué? RA: Porque ya no había más en el rancho onde estábamos nosotros ahí, hasta ahí había nada más. LM: ¿Dónde vivían?, ¿en qué rancho? RA: En Benjamín Aranda, Municipio de Canatlán. LM: O sea que nació usted aquí en Durango y se fue. RA: Sí, de la edad de once años nos fuimos para el ran…
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Ávila Hernández, Ramón
date: 2003-06-02
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Miguel Jáquez López
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Miguel Jáquez was born on May 7, 1931, in Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, México; he grew up in Súchil, Durango, with his nine siblings; when he was eight years old, he began working cutting wood and planting beans and corn; one of his brothers was a bracero and encouraged him to enroll in the bracero program; in 1953, he enlisted, and he worked in Arizona, Arkansas, and Texas, picking cotton; he continued working with the program until 1959. Summary of Interview: Mr. Jaquez recalls his family, childhood, and adolescence; one of his brothers was a bracero and encouraged him to enroll in the bracero program; in 1953, he enlisted, and began the hiring process; he describes the contracting centers in Durango, Durango, Monterrey, Nuevo León, and Empalme, Sonora, México, and the entire hiring process, as well as the extensive medical exams; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona, Arkansas, and Texas, picking cotton; he goes on to explain what daily life was like on the farm, including work, wages, payments, contract amendments and extensions, housing, food, weekend outings, and common complaints; in addition, he mentions specific instances of racism the braceros experienced in various towns; he concludes with fond memories of his overall experiences as a bracero.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Jaquez López, Miguel
date: 2003-05-27
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Maurilio Salcido Hernández
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Mauricio Salcido was born on September 13, 1936, in Durango, Durango, México; at the age of twenty-one, he became a bracero; he worked in Phoenix, Arizona, Michigan, Montana, and Texas from 1957 to 1964. Summary of Interview: Mr. Salcido worked in the bracero program from 1957 to 1964; he recalls the hiring process for braceros, the medical exams they endured and how they were treated at the reception centers in Empalme, Sonora, México and the United States; additionally, he describes picking cotton in Arizona, cucumbers in Michigan, sugar beets in Montana, and irrigating cotton in Texas; he explains his pride in having been a bracero, the benefits of being a contracted migrant worker, and how his earnings during the bracero program helped him purchase the properties he owns.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Salcido Hernández, Maurilio
date: 2003-02-01
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José Ignacio Astorga Corral
subject: Bracero
description: Nombre del entrevistado: José Ignacio Astorga Corral Facha de la entrevista: 17 de marzo de 2003 Nombre del entrevistador: Laureano Martínez Esta es una entrevista con el señor José Ignacio Astorga Corral, en la ciudad de Durango, Durango, el día 17 de marzo de 2003. Conducida por Laureano Martínez para el Projecto Bracero del Instituto de Historia Oral de la Universidad de Texas en El Paso. LM: Buenos días don José. JA: Buenos días. LM: ¿Cómo está? JA: Pos bien, y, ¿ustedes cómo están? LM: Muy bien, gracias a Dios. JA: Con su trabajo, ¿cómo andan? LM: Pos bien, aquí. JA: Pos nosostros aquí andamos echándole ganas a ver qué es lo que nos dicen ustedes. LM: Muy bien, don José, me gustaría comenzar esta entrevista preguntándole, ¿dónde y cuándo nació usted? JA: Agárrate, yo nací en Palomas Canelas, Durango. LM: ¿En qué año? JA: El año [19]33, el 31 de julio a las seis de la tarde. LM: ¿Cómo se llamó su papá? JA: Francisco Astorga Chávez. LM: Y, ¿su mamá? JA: Pastora Corral González. LM: ¿Cuántos hermanos tuvo, don José? JA: Mire, tuve muchos, ahí le va, pero de mi mamá juimos ocho. LM: ¿Se acuerda de los nombres de sus hermanos? JA: Sí, el primero fue yo, José Ignacio y luego sigue Rosalba Astorga Corral, Carolina Astorga Corral, Austriberto Astorga Corral, Ricardo Astorga Corral, Jesús Astorga Corral, Aureleano Astorga Corral, el socoyote Fidel Astorga Corral, los ocho. LM: ¿Usted era el mayor de ellos? JA: Así es, el primero. LM: ¿A qué se dedicaba su papá, don José? JA: Agricultor, ganadero y campesino. Hay que hablar la cosa como es, él era agricultor, ganadero y campesino. LM: ¿Qué sembraban, don José? JA: Maíz, papa y frijol, era lo que se levantaba en esa sierra de Durango, es en la Madre Sierra de Durango donde está ese rancho. LM: Maíz, papa y frijol. Y, ¿tenían ganado?, ¿tenían vaquitas? JA: Ey, vaquitas, bestias. LM: Y, ¿tuvo usted oportunidad de ir a la escuela? JA: No, estábamos en un rancho incomunicado de maestros, de todo, ya cuando quisimos salir a es…
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Astorga Corral, José Ignacio
date: 2003-03-17
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José Guadalupe Blanco Ortega
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Blanco was born on December 12, 1923, in Canelas, Durango, México; he was formally schooled through the second grade; when he was eight years old, he left his family to work with his father; they farmed together well into his teenage years; later he married and began a family; in 1949, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked picking cotton in New Mexico and Texas. Summary of Interview: Mr. Blanco recalls his family, childhood, and adolescence; in 1948, he married his wife, and the following year, before the birth of their second child, he decided to enroll in the bracero program; he describes how he and a group of men walked through the mountains for three days to get to a town where they could take the train to Durango, Durango, México; from there they traveled to Chihuahua to officially begin the hiring process; he describes the entire hiring and contracting process including the medical exams and disinfecting procedures; as a bracero, he worked picking cotton in New Mexico and Texas; he explains how he picked the cotton, the wages he earned, the methods of payment, and how he was able to obtain amendments and extensions to his contracts; in addition, he tells what daily life was like on the farms including the housing and food; in general, he was treated well by his American employers; he also recalls his return trip to México; overall, he benefited greatly from the program, and he concludes that he is proud to have been a part of it.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Blanco Ortega, José Guadalupe
date: 2003-01-31
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Jesús Sierra Espinoza
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Sierra was born on June 21, 1935; he grew up in a stonemason family in Durango, Durango, México; he was the oldest of five brothers; at an early age, he worked cutting stone to help his father; in 1956, he joined the bracero program and worked in Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas; he picked cotton, strawberries, and tomatoes; he also harvested lettuce and sugar beets. Summary of Interview: Mr. Sierra grew up in Durango, Durango, México; he learned stonemasonry from his father; in 1956, he joined the bracero program due to economic hardship; he worked in Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico and Texas; additionally, he describes the hiring process he went through, the legal requirements of the program, how the bracero reception centers in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México and Empalme, Sonora, México worked, and the different ports of entry to the United States; he recounts his experience at Rio Vista, a bracero processing center in Socorro, Texas; furthermore, he recalls his first activities farming, how work was distributed, their wages, and their contracts; he also details the housing they had, the treatment they received from foremen, the relationships among braceros and what they did during weekends.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Sierra Espinoza, Jesús
date: 2003-05-30
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Ignacio Magallanes Hernández
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Ignacio Magallanes was born on July 31, 1932, in Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, México; he was the third of seven brothers; at the age of ten, he worked in agriculture; his father joined the bracero program in 1942; at the age of eighteen, he moved to Durango, Durango, México and worked in construction; economic hardship and his father’s insistence pushed him to enlist in the Bracero Program in 1954; he worked in California, Michigan, and Texas picking cantaloupes, lettuce, sugar beets, tomatoes, and watermelons; these activities he performed until 1961. Summary of Interview: Mr. Magallanes describes the economic situation that led him to the bracero program in 1954; he worked in California, Michigan, and Texas; additionally, he details what the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México was like, the treatment he received from American doctors, and his train trip to the México-United States border; he recalls daily activities on farms, the work braceros did, and the way they were paid; furthermore, he discusses the different types of contracts they had and their lengths; he states what braceros did during weekends, and the racism they encountered in the United States; he remembers the benefits of being a bracero, the things he liked and disliked in the U.S., and his fond memories of the program.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Magallanes Hernández, Ignacio
date: 2003-05-26
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Heriberto Galvéz Saldivar
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Heriberto Galvéz was born on March 16, 1939, in Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, México; he was the third of four siblings; when he was two years old, his father died, and he was in turn raised by an abusive step-father; his family’s economic difficulties coupled with the continual abuse by his step-father led him to enroll in the bracero program in 1963; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas, California, and Michigan, picking cucumbers, cotton, and sorghum. Summary of Interview: Mr. Galvéz recalls his childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood; he vividly relives his experiences with his abusive step-father; in spite of his step-father’s disapproval, he decided to enroll in the bracero program, in 1963; he describes what the hiring process was like in the rural areas of México, including how the hands of potential braceros were often examined for calluses as signs of hard work; upon arriving at the contracting center in Durango, Durango, he underwent similar questioning and had to present official documents; from there, he was taken to a reception center in Eagle Pass, Texas, where he was medically examined; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas, California, and Michigan, picking cucumbers, cotton, and sorghum; he goes on to explain what daily life on the farm was like for braceros, as well as work, wages, payments, contract amendments and extensions, housing, food, how they were treated by the foremen, and their weekend outings.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Galvéz Saldivar, Heriberto
date: 2003-05-26
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Cornelio Soto Ramírez
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Cornelio Soto was born on September 16, 1938, in San Pedro de Azfranes, Durango, México; he was the youngest of five brothers; his father died nine days after he was born; he worked as a bracero from 1956 to 1960 in California; during this time, he cultivated and irrigated cotton, lettuce, onions, sugar beets, and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Mr. Soto grew up in Otáez, Durango, México; economic hardship led him to leave the country in the 1950s; after working for two years at the México-U.S. border, he became a bracero in 1956; he describes how he survived in Empalme, Sonora, México while waiting to go through the processing center, how he got his first bracero contract, and his trip to the border; additionally, he explains the bracero hiring process, the medical exams he endured, the reception center in California, and his trip to a farm; he details their daily activities, their housing, their wages, their hobbies, and the food they ate; furthermore, he remembers working in a kitchen, as well as the treatment he received from foremen; he relates how he gained the trust of the foreman and how he became second in command; moreover, he also recollects his loneliness and his decision to return to México; this decision made him miss the opportunity to become a legal U.S. resident, but allowed him to start his own business; he explains why he believes the bracero program should still be in operation and how the experience changed his life.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Soto Ramírez, Cornelio
date: 2003-03-18
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa