María Carmona
subject: Family relationships
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: María Carmona was born on November 9, 1945, in Tepatitlán, Jalisco, México; she is the daughter of a bracero; at age fifteen, her family moved to the United States with her father, and they all worked on a farm; during the 1970s, she helped organize migrant workers for César Chávez’s union; María Serrano was born on January 4, 1930, in Tecolotlán, Jalisco, México; her husband was a bracero from 1944 to the end of the program; she moved to the United States in 1966 and worked picking cherries, grapefruits, lemon, and lettuce; in the 1970s, she also joined César Chávez’s movement and helped organize migrant workers. Summary of Interview: Ms. Carmona and Ms. Serrano discuss their childhoods and what life was like in México for them; they both explain how the bracero program impacted them directly; specifically, Ms. Carmona describes the hardships her family endured while her father worked as a bracero; she states that it was hard to never know when her father would return; additionally, she explains how her mother coped with the situation and how the children had to work from an early age to help make ends meet; for Ms. Serrano, the bracero program impacted her through her marriage; she relates how hard it was to have a husband that worked as bracero and was often away from home; she states that sometimes she did not see him for two or three years, and that he often was home only long enough to get her pregnant; both women recount how they moved to the United States, and how they became involved in the union movement developed by César Chávez; they explain how they organized strikes and how teamsters attempted to intimidate and disrupt their efforts; they both address the problems they saw in their communities due to alcoholism and violence; they conclude the interview discussing how they attempted to solve those problems.
creator: Loza, Mireya
creator: Carmona, María
date: 2006-05-20
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
relation: Serrano_COA012
language: spa

Efraín Benítez Santana
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Efraín Benítez Santana was born on October 12, 1931, in Cutzamala de Pinzón, Guerrero, México; he has two siblings; in 1952, he entered the bracero program; he worked in Arkansas and Texas picking cotton. Summary of Interview: Mr. Benítez Santana remembers his childhood in Cutzamala de Pinzón, Guerrero, México; he states that he grew up with two siblings; in 1952, he decided to join the bracero program due to economic need; he explains that he was contracted in Monterey, Nuevo Leon, México and then sent to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México; moreover, he outlines what the process was like to be contracted in the Irapuato center and then sent via train to the United States-México border; he remembers being deloused at the border and how he was then transported to his worksite; furthermore, he recalls that his first contract sent him to Arkansas, but his assignment was cancelled because the region had received very little rain; his next contract was at El Indio, Texas picking cotton; he relates that he worked under this contract until 1963; additionally, he describes working ten hour days and the amount of money he was paid for his labor; he asserts that he had very good relationships with the small group of braceros that worked with him and that they often went to the movies on days off; to conclude, he states that he migrated to the United States after he left the bracero program in 1963, the same year his mother died.
creator: Mena, Violeta
creator: Benítez Santana, Efraín
date: 2006-05-20
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Juan Aguilar López
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Juan Aguilar López was born on August 21, 1931, in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, México; he is the youngest of four siblings; at an early age, he began working in agriculture with his family; he never received formal schooling; in 1950, he entered the United States as an undocumented worker, and shortly thereafter decided to join the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in California and Texas picking cotton, peaches and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Mr. Aguilar López remembers his childhood growing up in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, México; he states he worked from an early age in agriculture, resulting in him never attending a formal school; as an adult, he taught himself to read and write, and his wife helped him learn to manage his finances; in 1950, he entered the United States as an undocumented worker, and shortly thereafter decided to join the bracero program; he explains he was contracted the first time in Mexicali, Baja California, México and details what the contracting process was like; specifically, he describes how officials performed medical exams, which included blood tests; once in the United States, he states that farmers would pick workers from the processing center at a location he called La Asociación; he worked in California and Texas picking cotton, peaches and tomatoes; in addition, he describes what daily life was like for braceros, the living quarters they had, the food they ate, and what they did for recreation; moreover, he relates the difficulty of the work braceros did, and the pay they received; he specifies that deductions were made to his paycheck to cover food costs; furthermore, he states how he communicated via letters with his family, and how he sent money back to México; to conclude, he recounts how he legally brought his family to the United States.
creator: Carrillo, Alma
creator: Aguilar López, Juan
date: 2006-05-20
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José María Aguilar García
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José María Aguilar García was born on March 19, 1933, in Casa Blanca, Michoacán, México; his parents were campesinos on a small ranch where he and his ten siblings were born; when he was roughly eight years old, his mother died; although he did not know how to read or write, he did learn how to work in agriculture and care for livestock; for a short time his father and brother were braceros; in the early fifties he also enlisted in the bracero program, and he primarily worked in California; after the program ended he was able to obtain legal documentation and permanently settle in the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Aguilar briefly recalls his family and childhood; he talks about coming to Brawley, California, illegally when he was nineteen years old and learning how to clean and prune lettuce crops; his time in Brawley served him greatly, because not only did he learn how to care for crops, he was also able to obtain a new eighteen month contract from his boss there while he was working another forty-five day contract in Arizona; on several occasions he passed through the reception center in Calexico, California, which he describes as very bad, primarily because of the way they were deloused; he goes on to chronicle the various worksites, living and housing conditions, provisions, treatment, duties, payments, deductions, remittances, contract renewals, and recreational activities; in addition, he mentions working in Salinas, California, when his father became ill and receiving a three day pass from his employer to visit him in Mexicali, Baja California, México; he also discusses an instance in which the food made him sick; when he complained, he was transferred to a new work location; after the program ended he was able to obtain legal documentation and permanently settle in the United States; overall, he has positive memories of having worked as a bracero, because he was able to send his children to school and general…
creator: Sifuentez, Mario
creator: Aguilar García, José María
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Jesús Aceves Gutiérrez
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Aceves Gutiérrez was born on August 15, 1939, in Tototlán, Jalisco, México; he is the second oldest of eight brothers and five sisters; he received little formal schooling, but his mother taught him to read and write; in 1957, he joined the bracero program; he worked in Coachella, California picking cotton, dates, grapefruits, lemons, and oranges; he left the program in 1960 and later returned to California to pick dates. Summary of Interview: Mr. Aceves Gutiérrez recalls his childhood in Tototlán, Jalisco, México; he explains that his father was a wealthy man, and that his mother educated him; at age eleven, he began working in agriculture; he remembers joining the bracero program in 1957 and traveling to Empalme, Sonora, México for his contract; moreover, he relates what the contracting process was like, how he was treated by officials, and what physical exams he was given; he describes being taken to the border in trucks, and how he was deloused in El Centro, California; he expresses feeling humiliated during this process; furthermore, he explains how braceros were picked for work at El Centro and then taken to their worksites; he worked in Coachella, California until 1960, picking cotton, dates, grapefruits, lemons, and oranges; he details daily life as a bracero, the work he did, how much he was paid, and how many hours he worked; more specifically, he outlines the differences between getting hourly pay versus contract pay, as well as how deductions were made to his paychecks for food; he details bracero living arrangements, the bad quality of the food they received, and how they were treated by foremen; he also discusses labor unions that were developed in the fields; in addition, he remembers how he was discriminated against by police officers; he states he returned to Coachella with papers after the program finished; beyond his bracero experience, he relates that he is a writer and composer; he also states that he …
creator: Mena, Violeta
creator: Aceves Gutiérrez, Jesús
date: 2006-05-20
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Vidal Tafoya
subject: bracero
description: Vidal Tafoya was born April 28, 1948, on a ranch in Tarengo, [Jalisco] México; his parents were campesinos, and he had six siblings; he was formally educated through the third grade; by the time he was eleven years old, he was already working in the fields; later, when he was eighteen, he enlisted in the bracero program; he completed one contract in California picking tomatoes; eventually, he married and had six children; during the late 1960s, he immigrated to the United States with his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Tafoya briefly talks about his family and what his life was like growing up in México; he recalls that a great flood ruined all the crops, which led to government officials giving out cards to enlist in the bracero program on several ejidos; he went to Empalme, Sonora, México, where he encountered difficulties, because he had not completed his military service; eventually, he was able to pass through to the center in Mexicali, Baja California, México, where he was examined and fumigated; he was then transported by bus to the San Joaquin Valley Association where ranchers chose the workers they wanted; as a bracero, he completed one contract in California picking tomatoes; he goes on to detail housing, accommodations, provisions, duties, routines, treatment, payment, deductions, remittances and recreational activities, including trips into town; at the camp, he had to work in fields that had already been picked, which did not allow him to earn very much; soon after, he followed the older men there and walked out on strike; he describes the events and difficulties that ensued and how he was transferred to a new camp; after his contract ended, he returned to México and continued working in the fields with his father; eventually, he married and had six children; during the late 1960s, he immigrated to the United States; although he felt that as a bracero, he was viewed as less by the locals, the program still afforded him the opportunity to work and prov…
creator: Sandoval, Adriana
creator: Tafoya, Vidal
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Perfecta Rivas de Rodríguez
subject: Daughter of a bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Perfecta Rivas de Rodríguez was born in Valparaíso, Zacatecas, México, on December 11, 1947; her mother, Consuelo Garcia, was a housewife, and her father, Juan Rivas Bañuelo, made marble headstones for cemeteries; Perfecta is the eldest of her twelve siblings; in the midfifties her father enlisted in the bracero program, which financially helped her family; later, in the early seventies she immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Ms. Rivas de Rodríguez briefly discusses her family and childhood; she recalls hearing about the courtship between her mother and father; in the midfifties her father enlisted in the bracero program, which financially helped her family, and they were able to move out of her paternal grandfather’s home and into their own; she remembers that there were always notices around town to sign up for the program; the men had to stay anywhere between eight and fifteen days in Empalme, Sonora, México; while waiting some men ate banana peels or nothing at all, and they used cardboard as blankets; the fumigations they underwent were also difficult, but necessity drove them; when her father left, the entire family was sad and worried about what could happen to him; upon receiving their first letter from him they were elated and relieved; every fifteen days her father sent letters and money home; her mother cashed the money orders at local stores, because they offered a better dollar to peso ratio than the banks; at the time they were able to receive twelve pesos for every dollar, which went a long way; with this money, some of her younger siblings were even able to attend secondary schools; they were able to buy their necessities instead of having to depend on whatever the crops would yield if there was even enough rain in a given season; one of her father’s employers offered to help him and his family obtain legal documentation, but her grandfather did not want to let them leave; overall, her family b…
creator: Esparza, Araceli
creator: Rivas de Rodríguez, Perfecta
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Carlos Villagomes Fuentes
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Carlos Villagomes was born on November 18, 1932, in Uriangato, Guanajuato; he is the eldest of his five siblings; while going to school, he helped his father work the land, and as a result received very little formal education; his uncles served in the bracero program, and he wanted to follow in their footsteps in the hopes of financially helping his family; he worked off and on with the program from 1952 to 1955; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California, Michigan, Texas, and Wyoming, picking beets, cotton, cucumbers, lemons, and lettuce; in 1962, with the help of his brother, he was able to emigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Villagomes briefly describes his family, childhood, and adolescence; he becomes emotional and cries upon recalling his decision to become a bracero in the hopes of financially helping his family; initially, he went through the contracting center in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, to enlist as a bracero; he goes on to explain the requirements, general exams, including immunizations and delousing procedures, and the overall process he underwent at the various centers he went through; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California, Michigan, Texas, and Wyoming, picking beets, cotton, cucumbers, lemons, and lettuce; he details the different worksites, duties, payment, deductions, treatment, contract renewals, living conditions, provisions, remittances, recreational activities, and relationships; in addition, he mentions having to carry his mica card or contract with him wherever he went; he also describes how the foremen were often very hard on all the workers; there was one instance in which he volunteered to help in Oxnard, California, after a huge fire, and he was paid very well for his work; in 1962, with the help of his brother, he was able to emigrate to the United States; overall, his memories of the program are positive, and he considers it a great satisfaction and…
creator: Cachu, Ivonne
creator: Villagomes Fuentes, Carlos
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Nicolás Saldaña Sandoval
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Nicolás Saldaña was born on a small ranch just outside of Tlaltenango, Zacatecas, México; he has three sisters and one brother; as a child he helped work the land and care for the animals; in 1957, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington, picking corn, cotton, and pears. Summary of Interview: Mr. Saldaña describes his very humble upbringing; his father was an undocumented worker in the United States and initially sent money home to his family, but he eventually stopped; his mother and sisters were left on their own, and he weeps at the recollection of how much they suffered; in 1957, he decided to enlist as a bracero with the hopes of earning money to help his family; he explains what he went through at the different processing centers in México, including paying money to gather all the required documents, the hundreds of thousands of men waiting for contracts, how hard it was waiting for weeks on end, and enduring harsh conditions throughout the entire time; in addition, he depicts his ride on a train without seats, the lingering smell of the animals that had previously been in there, and how the straw used to feed the animals was left on the floor of the train when he boarded; upon arriving in the United States, he recounts how he was examined, deloused, and taken to a holding area where ranchers would pick the workers they wanted; as a bracero, he worked in Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington, picking corn, cotton, and pears; he goes on to describe the various worksites, duties, payment, living conditions, and provisions; while working in Medford, Oregon, picking pears, he fell off a fifteen foot ladder; although he was not seriously injured, he was given monetary compensation; while working as a bracero, he was able to communicate with his mother and sister who had since emigrated to the United States; upon finishing one of his contracts he had to return to México and cons…
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Saldaña Sandoval, Nicolás
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Jesús Rivera López
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Rivera López was born on October 7, 1934, in Corrales, Juchitlán, Jalisco, México; he is the eldest of his five brothers; from 1942 to 1953 his father worked in the bracero program; in 1956, against his father’s wishes, he also enlisted in the program; he labored primarily in the fields of California picking a variety of fruits and vegetables until 1963; later, in 1970, he moved to Los Angeles, California. Summary of Interview: Mr. Rivera talks about his father who became a permanent resident of the United States in the early 1900s and was repatriated during the massive deportations of the 1930s; in 1942, his father returned to the United States as a bracero and stayed with the program until 1953; as the eldest son, Jesús was left to care for his family while his father was away; in 1956, against his father’s wishes, he went to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist as a bracero; he describes the difficulties of surviving while waiting as well as the rudeness of the exams; from there he was transported in an already full cargo train to Mexicali, Baja California, México, and he had to stand for the entire trip, which was more than twelve hours; in El Centro, California, he was medically examined again and fumigated; he goes on to detail the various worksites, living conditions, housing provisions, duties, daily routines, payments, and contract renewals; more specifically, he discusses how incredibly grueling it was to stay hunched over all day and not being allowed to stand; by the end of the day he could no longer sit or lay down; moreover, he explains that when he packed tomatoes in Patterson, California, each box weighed forty-five pounds, each truck held eight hundred and sixty boxes, and he had to pack three to four trucks a day, in an eight hour span, all the while the trucks continued moving; he encountered a similar situation in Blythe, California, when packing boxes of alfalfa that weighed seventy-five to eighty pounds…
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Rivera López, Jesús
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Heriberto Rivas Lugo
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Heriberto Rivas Lugo was born on July 4, 1935, in Arivechi, Sonora, México; he is the eldest of his five sisters and three brothers; his parents were agricultural workers; although he liked school, he was formally educated only through the sixth grade; when he was sixteen, he came to the United States illegally, and he continued working there for a few years; later, in 1955, he obtained a bracero contract; by 1958, he was able to legally immigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Rivas briefly chronicles his family and childhood; during his adolescence he saw no future for himself in helping his dad work the land nor did he see the opportunity to further his education; when he was sixteen, he came to the United States illegally; he was caught by immigration officials, and they told him about the bracero program; in 1955, he was able to obtain a bracero contract in Hermosillo, Sonora, México; he describes sneaking into the center, because there were more than twenty thousand men, and he knew he would not make it; he was then transported by train to Mexicali, Baja California, México, and then to Calexico, California; while there he was medically examined, which included being x-rayed and fumigated; initially, the work was very difficult, because he did not know what to do; after completing an eighteen month contract, he had to return to México, but his boss gave him a card that allowed him to quickly pass through the contracting center and return to the United States in three days; he explains that there were about five hundred braceros at the camp, and of those, sixty-five, including himself, were chosen to stay year-round; moreover, he details the living and working conditions, housing, provisions, duties, daily routines, payments, and deductions; in addition, he describes the entire process he underwent to obtain legal documentation; by 1958, he was able to immigrate to the United States.
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Rivas Lugo, Heriberto
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Nemencio Meza
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Nemencio Meza was born on October 31, 1931, in Molcaxac, Puebla, México; he has two brothers and two sisters; his parents worked in the fields planting barley, beans, corn, and wheat; he was formally educated through the second grade; in 1959, he enlisted in the bracero program, where he continued working on and off until 1962; he primarily labored in the fields of California picking various fruits and vegetables; during the mideighties his entire family immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Meza very briefly discusses his family; in 1959, he and his father went to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the bracero program; although they were both sent to California, they worked in different cities; he talks about braceros generally being mistreated throughout the contracting process, because the medical exams were painful, money was frequently stolen from them, they were often left hungry, and in Calexico, California, they were stripped and deloused; they endured whatever they had to out of necessity; the camps, unfortunately, were not much better; as a bracero, he worked on and off from 1959 to 1962, primarily in California picking various fruits and vegetables; he goes on to detail various worksites, housing, provisions, duties, daily routines, payments, deductions, remittances, contract renewals, and recreational activities; once, while on a forty-five day contact, he left after only thirty days, because he was treated so badly; he also describes the grueling use of the short hoe, which was only about two feet long, and having to be hunched over all day; in addition, he states that some braceros spoke Náhuatl, not Spanish, and did not always have an interpreter; he goes on to explain how his hometown had changed as a result of the program, including new homes, paved roads, mail service, phones, and the advent of government operated stores known as CONASUPO, Compañia Nacional de Subsistencia Popular; durin…
creator: Loza, Mireya
creator: Meza, Nemencio
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Nicolás Martínez
subject: bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Nicolás Martínez was born on September 9, 1926, in Puebla, México; he came from a family of campesinos, whose main crops were beans and corn; when he was roughly thirty-five years old, he enlisted in the bracero program; after the program ended, he traveled back and forth between the United States and México in order to work; he later became a U.S. citizen; in addition, he became involved with different civic organizations intended to help field workers. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez begins by stating that many men left their homes in México, because there was not enough work to support their families; when he was roughly thirty-five years old, he enlisted in the bracero program; he explains that in order to get on the list of eligible workers in his home town he had to work in the fields there; once he was on that list, along with several hundred other men, he went through the contracting center in Empalme, Sonora, México; after waiting for up to one month, he was transported to Mexicali, Baja California, México, where he and the other men were treated like livestock; the medical exams were particularly embarrassing, because they were stripped in front of everyone and fumigated; the testicular exams were especially difficult and painful; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arkansas, California, and Michigan, picking apples, beets, cotton, cucumbers, lettuce, and peaches; he goes on to detail the various worksites, housing, provisions, payments, deductions, remittances, contract renewals, and recreational activities; more specifically, he reveals that after four or five months of working, employers would bring women into the camps for the men; in addition, he explains that if there were any complaints, the Mexican government would send investigators to look into the allegations; he also describes the various jobs he had after the program ended, and how he later became part of a group named Hermandad Mexicana, which he…
creator: González, Pablo
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Sabas Luna
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Sabas Luna was born in 1939, in Tlaltenango [de Sánchez Román], Zacatecas, México; his parents were campesinos whose main crop was corn, and he was the fourth of nine children; he was formally educated through the fourth grade, during which time he also helped his parents work the land; when he was eighteen, he followed in his father’s footsteps and enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arkansas, California, and Texas, picking avocado, cotton, lemons, and tomatoes; he also worked at a dairy caring for livestock; in the late sixties he immigrated to the United States with his family. Summary of Interview: Mr. Luna recounts his childhood and adolescence, particularly his experiences as a young campesino; he recalls his dad working as a bracero, which helped his family financially, but left him without a father’s guidance; consequently, he and his older brother had to care for the family and show their younger siblings how to work; at eighteen, he obtained his first bracero contract in Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, which took him to Arkansas; it rained too much there for him to earn any money; the following year, he went through a center in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, which took him to a dairy farm just outside of Amarillo, Texas, where he stayed for three years; he initially hesitates to talk about how he was treated at the contracting centers, but he goes on to describe being stripped, medically examined, and deloused, which he found offensive; moreover, he details the various worksites, living conditions, provisions, housing, duties, daily routines, contract renewals, payments, remittances, and recreational activities; after the program ended, he met and married his wife; he stayed with a longing to return to the United States and make a better life for himself and his family; in the late sixties he and his family moved to United States; he notes that he is grateful he did not have a wife …
creator: Benavides Lopez, Corina
creator: Luna, Sabas
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José Luis Gazca
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Luis Gazca was born on October 22, 1935, in Romita, Guanajuato, México; his parents worked in agriculture; as the eldest son among his six siblings, he went to school for only a brief time, because he had to help support his family; in 1955, he enlisted in the bracero program; he continued working on and off with the program until it ended in 1964; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California and Texas, picking apples, cotton, cucumber, green beans, lettuce, plums, and tomatoes; he later returned to the United States as an undocumented worker, but he was ultimately able to obtain legal status. Summary of Interview: Mr. Gazca describes his family, childhood, and adolescence; in 1955, he decided to enlist in the bracero program; to begin the contracting process, he went to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, where he spent a day, then he traveled to Empalme, Sonora, where he spent roughly three days, before heading to Mexicali, Baja California, and finally to Calexico, California; moreover, he details the different centers he went through as well as the range of procedures he underwent; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of California and Texas, picking apples, cotton, cucumber, green beans, lettuce, plums, and tomatoes; in addition, he explains the various worksites, duties, housing, amenities, provisions, treatment, payment, remittances, and recreational activities; more specifically, he mentions being so close to the border, at times, that he could cross over on a bus whenever he had time off; he also talks about a foreman, in Chula Vista, California, that gave him extra work, so he could earn more money to send to his family; while he was in Texas, however, he was always pushed to work harder, which was difficult to do when there was so little to pick and, consequently, even less to earn; he continued working on and off with the program until it ended in 1964; during the late sixties, he returned to the United State…
creator: Rosas, Ana
creator: Gazca, José Luis
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Guadalupe García González
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Guadalupe García was born in La Concha, Sinaloa, México; he was the second eldest of his eleven brothers and three sisters; his parents worked in agriculture and with cattle; he was formally educated through the third grade, but he left school in order to help his family work the land; for a time he was an undocumented worker in California, but he was later able to obtain proper documentation under the bracero program; as a bracero, he continued working throughout California picking celery, lettuce, and tomato, and he also operated heavy machinery, including a Caterpillar; he was ultimately able to emigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. García briefly describes his family; as a child, he recalls hearing about braceros and seeing them pass him by in trains; for a time, he was an undocumented worker in California; in 1953, farmers were fined for hiring such employees, and as a result he was let go; upon returning to México, he began the contracting process for the bracero program in Mexicali, Baja California; he goes on to detail the required documentation, the different contracting centers he went through, the extraordinarily long waiting times, and the thousands of men vying for contracts; in addition, he explains how the medical exams grew more stringent over time and how during the delousing process many men would vomit from the smell; he goes on to describe his various worksites, duties, housing, provisions, payment, treatment, remittances, and recreational activities; moreover, he relates how he was able to buy a car and obtain a driver’s license; although he did have some good employers, the foremen were often mean and mistreated the braceros; he even organized a strike once due to insufficient payment; even so, his memories of having worked as a bracero are positive; he was ultimately able to emigrate to the United States.
creator: Loza, Mireya
creator: García González, Guadalupe
date: 2006-05-11
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Rafael Covarrubias
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Rafael Covarrubias was born in Tlaltenango [de Sánchez Román], Zacatecas, México; he was the youngest of his two sisters and four brothers; his parents owned a small ranch, where they worked the land; when he was roughly twenty-one years old, he enlisted in the bracero program; at the time, he as married and had a son, which put him in great need of financial assistance; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of New Mexico and Texas, irrigating and picking various crops and driving a tractor; he continued working with program for a total of ten years. Summary of Interview: Mr. Covarrubias briefly mentions his family and childhood; by the time he was twenty-two, he had a wife and a son, but they were in desperate need of financial assistance, which prompted him to join the bracero program; he traveled to the contracting center in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, where his paperwork was thoroughly checked, and he was medically examined; from there, he was transported, free of cost, by cargo train to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, then he crossed into El Paso, Texas, and finally, he was taken by bus to Rio Vista, a processing center in Socorro, Texas; later, as he continued to re-enlist, he was transferred by bus from Chihuahua to Ciudad Juárez, and once he had money, he traveled by passenger train; while at Rio Vista, he again underwent medical assessments before being given the necessary contractual documentation; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of New Mexico and Texas, irrigating and picking various crops and driving a tractor, for a total of ten years; during this time, he worked seasonally with the same employers in Las Cruces, New Mexico and Big Spring, Texas; sometimes, he had to go to different farms, either because there were already enough workers or he could not wait to be picked up; overall, being a bracero was a positive experience for him, because it changed his life for the better; with the money he earned, he…
creator: Guerrero, Perla
creator: Covarrrubias, Rafael
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Rafael Cortez
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Rafael Cortez was born in Techaluta [de Montenegro], Jalisco, México; some of his family members, including uncles and cousins, came to the United States under the bracero program; Rafael longed to come to the states in the hopes of finding a better life or more aptly stated, to live the American dream; when he was eighteen, he traveled to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the program; as a bracero, he worked on several contracts throughout California and once in Arizona, as well. Summary of Interview: Mr. Cortez describes how the Mexican government would often send notices about forty-five day contracts with the bracero program to various cities throughout the country; upon receiving these announcements, men would travel to designated work locations in order to obtain the necessary paperwork for contracting centers; Rafael went to the center in Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist in the program; he states that there were over twenty-five thousand men waiting at the center, but there were only between three and five thousand men processed daily; Rafael goes on to describe the medical assessments he underwent while at the center; upon arriving in the United States, he was examined again and deloused; consequently, when blood samples were drawn, many men fainted; after being processed, ranchers would pick and choose which men they wanted to work, like they would animals; the men were singled out based on their size and what crop they would be harvesting; they were then transported by bus to their worksites; as a bracero, Rafael worked on several contracts throughout California and once in Arizona; he details the different cities he was sent to, as well as duties, daily routines, housing, provisions, payment, remittances, and recreational activities; in addition, he states that his initial salary was 75¢ an hour, but he ultimately earned up to $2.25 an hour; moreover, in spite of the fact that none of the men had cars, they woul…
creator: Esparza, Araceli
creator: Cortez, Rafael
date: 2006-05-13
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

David Alfaro Sandoval
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: David Alfaro Sandoval was born on April 18, 1930, in Romito, Guanajuato, México; his parents worked in agriculture, and he had two sisters; he was formally educated through the sixth grade; when his father died, he was forced to become the man of the family; in 1954, he enlisted in the bracero program, where he continued working on and off until 1962; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arizona and California picking various crops; he later returned to the United States, and he was ultimately able to obtain citizenship. Summary of Interview: Mr. Alfaro briefly discusses his family and childhood; he initially learned about the bracero program through people in town; in 1954, he went to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, to enlist in the program; he explains that there were between thirty and fifty thousand people on the waiting list, which was organized according to states and municipalities; as part of the contracting process he was stripped, medically examined, and deloused; the men had to wait for an hour before they could dress; as a bracero, he labored on and off in the fields of Arizona and California until 1962; the work was very difficult, and he suffered greatly; he recalls that he was paid 60¢ an hour, which totaled $6.00 a day; after all the deductions he was only left with $2.00; oftentimes, he did not have enough money to buy clothes or send very much to his family; in spite of this, he had to stay and work, because he could not even afford the expense of the trip home; when he deserted his contract he was able to earn in a day what took him a week to earn as a bracero; he goes on to detail how he would leave the bracero camp and go to Fresno, California, for more lucrative work; moreover, he talks about the various worksites, labor populations, living conditions, provisions, treatment, payments, remittances, and recreational activities; he concludes that the life of a bracero was especially difficult, because they …
creator: Rosas, Abagail
creator: Alfaro Sandoval, David
date: 2006-05-12
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Manuel Ramírez
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Manuel Ramírez was born on September 20, 1945, in Villa Matamoros, Chihuahua, México; he has eleven brothers and sisters; his father, Adolfo Ramírez Bañuelos, enlisted in the bracero program in 1946; as a bracero, he worked in Colorado and Texas; when Manuel was eleven years old, he worked with his father in Texas, but he was eventually deported; in 1958, Adolfo became seriously ill as a result of his duties, and he was hospitalized; shortly thereafter, he was also deported. Summary of Interview: Manuel Ramírez discusses his father, Adolfo Ramírez Bañuelos, and his perceptions of the United States that led to his decision to become a bracero; at the time, Adolfo was married and had five children; in 1946, he traveled to Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México, to enlist in the bracero program; he was then transported by train to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, and then by caravan to the county coliseum in El Paso, Texas, where ranchers chose their workers; on one occasion, he was transferred by plane from El Paso to Colorado; Manuel goes on to describe the various difficulties and humiliations his father underwent with each contract, including being deloused; as a bracero, Adolfo worked in Colorado and Texas; when Manuel was eleven years old, he worked with his father in Ysleta, Texas, and was paid in cash, because he was undocumented; he was eventually deported and warned that the next time, he would be incarcerated; in 1958, while working in Ysleta, Adolfo had to clean out a room where a group of braceros had died the night before due to carbon monoxide poisoning; as a result he became seriously ill, and he was hospitalized; shortly thereafter, he was also deported.
creator: Chew, Selfa
creator: Ramírez, Manuel
date: 2005-11-12
contributor: Cristóbal Borges
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Salvador Esparza Carreño
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Salvador Esparza was born on July 15, 1919, in Tepehuanes, Durango, México; he was the eldest of his nine siblings; when he was fourteen years old, he and his family moved to Durango, Durango; in 1945, he decided to enlist in the bracero program; as a bracero, he worked on the railroads, in the fields cutting asparagus, and as a camp cook. Summary of Interview: Mr. Esparza recalls his family, childhood, and adolescence; in spite of fears caused by rumors about World War II, he was encouraged by stories of successful first time braceros, and he decided to enroll in the Bracero Program in 1945; he went through the hiring process at a contracting center in Durango, México; from there, he was transported by train to Querétaro, then to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, and finally to Chicago, Illinois; he describes his first impressions of Chicago and how well he was treated by the people there; in addition, he details the work, wages, payments, housing, food, and the multicultural community that worked for the railroad company; he also mentions the strong friendships formed between the braceros and the great relationship he had with an Italian foreman; furthermore, he was treated well wherever he worked; he concludes that he is extremely grateful to the United States for having afforded him the opportunity to work as a bracero.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Esparza Carreño, Salvador
date: 2003-05-31
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Rosendo Alarcón Carrera
subject: Bracero
description: Nombre del entrevistado: Rosendo Alarcón Carrera Fecha de la entrevista: 28 de mayo de 2003 Nombre del entrevistador: Laureano Martínez Esta es una entrevista con el señor Rosendo Alarcón Carrera en la ciudad de Durango, Durango, el día 28 de mayo de 2003 conducido por Laureano Martínez para el Proyecto Bracero del Instituto de Historia Oral de la Universidad de Texas en El Paso. LM: Don Rosendo, buenos días. RA: Buenos días. LM: Don Rosendo me gustaría comenzar esta entrevista preguntándole, ¿dónde y cuándo nació usted? RA: Yo nací en San José de la Boca, Municipio de Tepehuanes. LM: ¿Cuándo? RA: En 1938, el día primero de este, el 27 de enero. LM: Veintisiete de enero. RA: De 1938. LM: ¿Cuántos años tiene usted, don Rosendo? RA: Sesenta y cinco. LM: Sesenta y cinco, muy bien. ¿Cómo se llamó su papá? RA: Juan Alarcón Quiñónez. LM: Y, ¿su mamá? RA: Catalina Carrera Cervantes. LM: ¿A qué se dedicaban sus padres? RA: Pos agricultores. LM: Era agricultor su papá. RA: Ey, trabajaba en el campo. LM: ¿Sembraban? RA: Sí. LM: ¿Qué sembraban? RA: Maíz, frijol, chile. LM: Y, ¿su mamá? RA: Pos ama de casa. LM: Qué bien, ¿tenía gallinitas ahí donde vivían? RA: Ey, gallinitas, marranos, vacas, chivas. LM: ¿Cuántos fueron ustedes de familia? RA: Diez. LM: Diez, ¿cuántos hombres y cuantas…? RA: Seis hombres y cuatro mujeres. LM: De esos diez, ¿usted que lugar ocupa? RA: El segundo. LM: Usted fue el segundo de los más grandes. RA: Sí. LM: ¿Tiene un hermano, un hermana? RA: Un hermano, mayor que yo. LM: ¿Sus padres eran originarios de ahí de la región? RA: Sí. LM: ¿De ahí mismo? RA: Sí, de ahí mismo. LM: Cuéntenos un poquito, ¿cómo es ese lugar donde usted nació?, ¿cómo es San José de la Boca? RA: Pos es un pueblito muy bonito, porque hay un río que es el Río Tepehuanes, es agua muy cristalina, muy bonita. Nosotros de ahí salimos como de nueve años a un rancho que se llama El Agua Caliente, acá en Melchor Ocampo a un lado de Santiago Papasquiaro. Y ahí vivimos bastante tiempo, hasta…
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Alarcón Carrera, Rosendo
date: 2003-05-28
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José Isabel Domínguez Hernández
subject: Bracero
description: Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Domínguez was born on July 8, 1926, in Vicente Guerrero, Durango, México; he was the eldest of two brothers; when he was eight years old, he began helping his father by sowing beans, corn, and squash; the extreme economic hardships his family faced convinced him to join the bracero program in 1952; as a bracero, he worked in California, Colorado, Michigan, and Texas, picking apples, cucumbers, grapes, oranges, and sugar beets; he continued working with the program until 1957. Summary of Interview: Mr. Domínguez briefly relates what his family and childhood were like; the extreme economic hardships his family faced convinced him to join the bracero program in 1952; as a bracero, he worked in California, Colorado, Michigan, and Texas, picking apples, cucumbers, grapes, oranges, and sugar beets; he describes the hiring process he went through at the contracting centers in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, and Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, as well as the long waiting periods and the disinfecting procedures; some of the braceros at these centers preferred working only in certain states; he details what life was like on the farms including the various kinds of work performed, wages, contract amendments and extensions, housing, food, weekend activities and hobbies, and how some braceros were able to send money home to México; in addition, he also recalls that representatives from the Mexican consulate would often visit; he concludes by describing what the benefits of having worked as a bracero were, and how he has fond memories of the program.
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Domínguez Hernández, José Isabel
date: 2003-06-03
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

José Ignacio Astorga Corral
subject: Bracero
description: Nombre del entrevistado: José Ignacio Astorga Corral Facha de la entrevista: 17 de marzo de 2003 Nombre del entrevistador: Laureano Martínez Esta es una entrevista con el señor José Ignacio Astorga Corral, en la ciudad de Durango, Durango, el día 17 de marzo de 2003. Conducida por Laureano Martínez para el Projecto Bracero del Instituto de Historia Oral de la Universidad de Texas en El Paso. LM: Buenos días don José. JA: Buenos días. LM: ¿Cómo está? JA: Pos bien, y, ¿ustedes cómo están? LM: Muy bien, gracias a Dios. JA: Con su trabajo, ¿cómo andan? LM: Pos bien, aquí. JA: Pos nosostros aquí andamos echándole ganas a ver qué es lo que nos dicen ustedes. LM: Muy bien, don José, me gustaría comenzar esta entrevista preguntándole, ¿dónde y cuándo nació usted? JA: Agárrate, yo nací en Palomas Canelas, Durango. LM: ¿En qué año? JA: El año [19]33, el 31 de julio a las seis de la tarde. LM: ¿Cómo se llamó su papá? JA: Francisco Astorga Chávez. LM: Y, ¿su mamá? JA: Pastora Corral González. LM: ¿Cuántos hermanos tuvo, don José? JA: Mire, tuve muchos, ahí le va, pero de mi mamá juimos ocho. LM: ¿Se acuerda de los nombres de sus hermanos? JA: Sí, el primero fue yo, José Ignacio y luego sigue Rosalba Astorga Corral, Carolina Astorga Corral, Austriberto Astorga Corral, Ricardo Astorga Corral, Jesús Astorga Corral, Aureleano Astorga Corral, el socoyote Fidel Astorga Corral, los ocho. LM: ¿Usted era el mayor de ellos? JA: Así es, el primero. LM: ¿A qué se dedicaba su papá, don José? JA: Agricultor, ganadero y campesino. Hay que hablar la cosa como es, él era agricultor, ganadero y campesino. LM: ¿Qué sembraban, don José? JA: Maíz, papa y frijol, era lo que se levantaba en esa sierra de Durango, es en la Madre Sierra de Durango donde está ese rancho. LM: Maíz, papa y frijol. Y, ¿tenían ganado?, ¿tenían vaquitas? JA: Ey, vaquitas, bestias. LM: Y, ¿tuvo usted oportunidad de ir a la escuela? JA: No, estábamos en un rancho incomunicado de maestros, de todo, ya cuando quisimos salir a es…
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Astorga Corral, José Ignacio
date: 2003-03-17
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa

Jesús Andrade Rodríguez
subject: Bracero
description: Nombre del entrevistado: Jesús Andrade Rodríguez Fecha de la entrevista: 1º de febrero de 2003 Nombre del entrevistador: Laureano Martínez Esta es una entrevista con el señor Jesús Andrade Rodríguez en la ciudad de Durango, Durango el día primero de febrero de 2003. Dirigiendo la entrevista para el Proyecto Bracero del Instituto de Historia Oral de la Universidad de Texas en El Paso, Laureano Martínez. LM: Don Jesús, buenas tardes. JA: Buenas tardes. LM: Primero que nada don Jesús, quiero que me cuente, dónde y cuándo nació usted. JA: Nací en Escamilla, Municipio de Canatlán, Durango. En el estado de Durango. LM: ¿Cuándo fue eso? JA: En 1930 nací yo, el 15 de septiembre de 1930. LM: Muy bien. JA: Así es. LM: Cuénteme un poquito de ese lugar, ¿cómo es Escamilla? JA: Es una hacienda que tiene ya ahorita va en los doscientos años. Una hacienda de agricultura de los hacendados de antes, nomás que cuando vino la, la lía esa del agrarismo, mi padre y mis tíos hicieron solicitud para ejido. Y se hizo ejido pero muy raquíticamente según me platicaban mis tíos, mi papá pos no lo conocí. Sembraban con bueyes que les prestaban otras personas que tenían ganado. Entonces muy pobre, entonces nosotros le hicimos también a la agricultura económicamente. Pero no alcanzábamos para mantener nostra familia y empezó a haber ese programa de que contrataciones, empezó aquí en Durango y, y ya veníamos a contratarnos. LM: Cuénteme, ¿cómo se llamaba su papá? JA: Juan de Dios Andrade. LM: Y, ¿su mamá? JA: García, Catalina Rodríguez Valdez. LM: ¿Cuántos años tiene usted, don Jesús? JA: Yo tengo setenta y un año[s] cumplidos. LM: Setenta y un años. ¿Cuántos hermanos tuvo? JA: Tengo ahorita bueno, bueno todos, aunque hayan muertos, por nomás los que haya, aunque se hayan muerto. LM: No, no importa. JA: Sí, sí, pos tuve, era, Maclovio, David, Leonardo, ya murió pero, ¿usted me pregunta de todos los hermanos, verdad? LM: Sí. JA: ¿Con todo y hermanas?, o, puros hermanos. LM: Hermanas y hermanos. JA…
creator: Martínez, Laureano
creator: Andrade Rodríguez, Jesús
date: 2003-02-01
rights: Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
language: spa