Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Clemente Velázquez Lucio was born on a ranch named El Molino, in San Diego de Alejandría, Jalisco, México, on November 23, 1931; his father’s name was Santos Velázquez, and his mother’s name was María Guadalupe Lucio; they worked for hacienda owners; Clemente had seven brothers and six sisters; he was never formally educated; when he was roughly sixteen years old, he worked illegally in Texas; in 1956, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in the fields of Arizona, Arkansas, California, and Texas. Summary of Interview: Mr. Velázquez recollects the humble home where he grew up with its roof made of grass and rocks; when he was twelve years old, he was responsible for about twenty cows on the hacienda; he was already married by the time he was roughly fifteen years old; not long after, he came to the United States illegally to work; he remembers hearing his uncles talk about the bracero program; in 1956, he was able to get on the list of eligible workers in order to get contracted in Empalme, Sonora, México; when not on the list, he had the option of going to Hermosillo, Sonora, to pick two thousand kilos of cotton, which was especially difficult; in Empalme, roughly two thousand men were processed daily, leaving anywhere between twelve and fifteen thousand men waiting for months at a time; from there he was transported in a cargo train to Mexicali, Baja California, México; he comments that the Mexican government was paid for each contract, which in essence allowed men to be rented out like cars for labor; as a bracero, he worked in the fields of Arizona, Arkansas, California, and Texas; he goes on to detail various camp sizes, housing, living conditions, provisions, treatment, contract lengths, correspondences, remittances, and recreational activities; in addition, he states that in Texas he worked in a camp with five thousand braceros, which was difficult; when it was time to return to México, they had to wait up to three days, because there were so many men that needed transportation.
Institute of Oral History, The University of Texas at El Paso
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Téllez Sánchez was born on September 20, 1934, in Villa López, Chihuahua, México; his father, Melesio Téllez Talamantes, worked in agriculture, and his mother, Luisa Sánchez, was a housewife; Jesús was the eighth born of his four sisters and five brothers; he was formally educated through the fourth grade; by the time he was fifteen years old, he was caring for animals and working the land; in 1953, he enlisted in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Colorado, Nebraska, Texas, and Wyoming; he continued working with the program until 1958. Summary of Interview: Mr. Tellez recalls his hometown, going to school, and working with his father; in 1953, he was able to get on the list of eligible workers in order to enlist in the bracero program; he went through the contracting center in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México; from there he was transported by train to El Paso, Texas, where he was medically examined, which including being stripped and deloused; the men who fumigated the braceros, however, wore uniforms for protection as well as masks; while at the processing center in Rio Vista, he was fed eggs, beans, and tortillas; before leaving for his worksite, he was given a sack lunch consisting of two sandwiches and an orange; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Colorado, Nebraska, Texas, and Wyoming, and he continued working with the program until 1958; he goes on to detail housing, living arrangements, amenities, provisions, daily routines, work duties, payments, remittances, and recreational activities; his longest contract was in Pecos, Texas, where he worked with roughly five or six other braceros; they made their own food, and each paid about $5.00 per week for their share of food; a few years after becoming a bracero he married a woman from his hometown; he briefly describes their relationship, including correspondence while he was in the United States, and their six children; overall, he has positive memories of the program; one of his daughters later helped him become a legal resident.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Ignacio Serna Gallardo was born on July 31, 1928, in La Higuera, in the municipality of Huanusco, Zacatecas, México; his father’s name was Gumaro Serna, and his mother’s name was Adelaida Gallardo; both worked in agriculture; Ignacio had three older brothers; he received very little formal education; at a young age, he began caring for the animals and working the land; by the time he was twelve years old, he took on the hard labor of working with the yoke; he later came to the United States illegally, and while there he became a bracero; during the late forties, he labored in the fields of Arizona and Texas cleaning, pruning, picking, and packing cantaloupe, cotton, and lettuce. Summary of Interview: Mr. Serna recalls the small town he grew up in and how it changed over the years; he also talks about his life on the ranch; his uncles and cousins who worked as braceros told him it was easy money; during the late forties, he came to the United States illegally, and while he was in Harlingen, Texas, he was able to obtain a bracero contract; he chronicles the process he went through, including the necessary documentation and medical examinations; furthermore, he was stripped and deloused in public, which he describes as something embarrassing that took away his dignity; although he felt bad at first, he endured the same procedures so many times that he began to see humor in them; he also went through contracting centers throughout México; sometimes, he had to pay between three and five hundred pesos in order to get a contract; as a bracero, he labored in the fields of Arizona and Texas cleaning, pruning, picking, and packing cantaloupe, cotton, and lettuce; in addition, he goes on to detail the various worksites, living accommodations, daily routines, work conditions, treatment, relationships, provisions, payments, and remittances; he also mentions that while fulfilling one contract he had to sleep on the bare floor without any blankets; although he suffered as a bracero, his overall memories of the program are positive.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Rosario Rentería was born on May 14, 1939, on a ranch named Tacote, and she was raised in Nayarit, México; her father’s name was Eugenio Rentería, and her mother’s name was Refugio Gómez de Rentería; Rosario was the eldest of her eight siblings, one of whom died as an adult; although she was never formally educated, some of her younger brothers and sisters were; when she was twelve years old, she helped support her family by selling helados; her father, Eugenio, worked as a bracero in the fields of California, picking cotton and dates; she ultimately helped both her parents immigrate to the United States, but her father later died in 1991 and her mom in 1998. Summary of Interview: Ms. Rentería talks about her family at length, including each of her siblings, and their corresponding occupations and families; her father, Eugenio Rentería, was a campesino, who later enlisted in the bracero program; she describes him as an extremely hard worker, fighter, and survivor; as a bracero, he worked in Calexico, Coachella, and Indio, California, picking cotton and dates; he often traveled back and forth between the United States and México; while working in Calexico, he was transferred to Indio; although he could not write, he regularly had someone help him so he could send letters and money home; Rosario’s mother, Refugio Gómez de Rentería, suffered greatly while Eugenio was gone; she cared for the children, and the entire family had to take over responsibility for the land; Rosario recalls crying and feeling alone whenever her father left; she used to ask him to take her with him to the United States; after the program ended he returned to México, but he kept returning to the United States; as an adult, Rosario immigrated to the United States and later married at the age of twenty-six; she ultimately helped both her parents immigrate to the United States, but her father later died in 1991 and her mom in 1998.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: José Ponce López was born on July 15, 1933, on ranch in the municipality of Villanueva, Zacatecas, México; he had thirteen siblings, but two died when they were only a few months old and two others died as adults, leaving eight brothers and one sister; his family primarily cared for livestock, but they also worked in agriculture; eventually, he began helping on the ranch with the land and the animals; when he was roughly twenty years old, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in the fields of California, Colorado, and Texas, picking apples, apricots, grapes, lemons, oranges, peaches, pears, and plums. Summary of Interview: Mr. Ponce vividly describes growing up on a ranch and working with his dad and brothers; he initially learned about the bracero program through other men that had contracts; his family did not want him to enlist, because they wanted him to marry and settle down; in order to join the program, he had to pick cotton in Hermosillo, Sonora, México, for fifteen days, before obtaining the necessary documents to go through the processing center in Empalme, Sonora; he did not get the papers on the first try, and he had to go back; later he underwent medical exams, which included being checked for hernia and hemorrhoids and assessments of his lungs and kidneys; as a bracero, he worked in the fields of California, Colorado, and Texas, picking apples, apricots, grapes, lemons, oranges, peaches, pears, and plums; he goes on to detail the various worksites, treatment, duties, housing, provisions, payments, remittances, working relationships, and recreational activities; once, while on a contract in Texas, he deserted to go work in California; on another occasion in Texas, he was hospitalized, and all expenses were paid by his employer; in addition, he mentions that in Santa Paula, California, the men had to keep the barracks clean enough to pass inspection; if not, they were not allowed to leave for work; overall, his experiences as a bracero were positive.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Aurelio Pereida Rodarte was born on January 13, 1925, in México; when he was only two years old, his mother passed away; his father was often gone and remarried four other times; consequently, Aurelio grew up alone; when he was eight years old, he began working in the fields; he was never formally educated, but he later learned to read and write as an adult; for a time, he worked illegally in the United States; during the late forties, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in the fields of Arizona, Arkansas, California, and Texas, picking beets, cantaloupe, cotton, dates, potatoes, tomatoes, and watermelon. Summary of Interview: Mr. Pereida recounts the various difficulties he faced during his childhood and adolescence; he was married by the time he was seventeen years old, and he had a tumultuous relationship with his wife; after they separated, he took on full responsibility for both of his children; prior to enlisting in the bracero program during the late forties he worked illegally in Texas; he chronicles going through processing centers in Chihuahua and Sonora, México, and being transported in cargo trains used to carry coal; in addition, he also underwent medical examinations and delousing procedures; as a bracero, he worked in the fields of Arizona, Arkansas, California, and Texas, picking beets, cantaloupe, cotton, dates, potatoes, tomatoes, and watermelon; he goes on to detail the worksites, living amenities, duties, payments, deductions, provisions, daily routines, working relationships, treatment, and recreational activities; moreover, he briefly mentions an accident in which a train and bus collided and half of the people died; consequently, the company went bankrupt after having to pay the families of the deceased workers; he also describes charging 50¢ to cut hair for other braceros on Saturdays before they went into town, which did not leave much time for him to rest; after the program ended he returned to México, and he was later able to legally immigrate to the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: María L. Menchaca was born on November 20, 1942, on a ranch named Corrales de Rábago, in the municipality of Pénjamo, Guanajuato, México; her mother’s name was Natalia Espinoza Herrera, and her father’s name was Antonio Ortega Estrada; she had eleven siblings, two of whom died when they were young; she was left with seven sisters and two brothers; her father, Antonio, worked in agriculture using borrowed land to support the family; in 1942, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in Arizona, California, and Texas on the railroads and in the fields picking carrots, cotton, grapes, lettuce, and tomatoes. Summary of Interview: Ms. Menchaca describes growing up in a small town; in 1942, the year she was born, her father, Antonio Ortega Estrada, went to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, to enlist in the bracero program; as a bracero, he labored in Arizona, California, and Texas on the railroads and in the fields picking carrots, cotton, grapes, lettuce, and tomatoes; although María was too young to remember her father being in the program, he frequently spoke of his experiences; Antonio endured being stripped and fumigated out of necessity; oftentimes, he worked from sun up to sun down, which was especially difficult; he slept on a bunk bed in a huge bodega with many other men and was taken to work by bus; although he regularly sent money home, he seldom wrote letters, because he did not write very well; in addition, he also spoke about how he was treated poorly, immigration checks, provisions, and recreational activities, including movies and church services; María also remembers taking a train and going into town with her mother and uncle to cash the checks her father would send; she mentions that there were primarily women and children in town and the surrounding areas, because so many men had joined the program; moreover, the men that did stay assaulted or took advantage of the women; although Antonio was able to save money as a bracero, he suffered greatly.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Herminio Martínez was born in Totatiche, Jalisco, México; he had about fourteen or fifteen siblings, but only ten, five women and five men, are living; although he was not formally educated for very long, he learned to read and write as an adult; in 1962, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in Texas; in 1980, he married, and he and his wife had two sons. Summary of Interview: Mr. Martínez recalls learning about the bracero program through the television; in 1962, he decided to enlist in the program; his father borrowed five hundred pesos to help him on the condition that he would in turn pay fifty dollars; Herminio describes going through a processing center in Chihuahua, México, where there were many people; he then went to Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México, where there were so many people that they all slept on the floor; from there, the men were transported by bus to a reception center where they were medically examined, which included blood samples, x-rays, and being fumigated; when they were stripped, they were laughed at and taunted; as a bracero, he worked in Lubbock and Plainview, Texas, picking cucumbers; he explains that he had to stay hunched over all day from 6:00 AM until 12:00 PM, at which point he was given a half hour lunch before returning to work again until 5:00 PM; in essence, he worked hunched over for ten hours a day without any breaks; he also mentions that the braceros were referred to by number, not by name; during his free time he would play poker or go to the movie theater, which was only a few blocks away; the foremen treated the men very badly by yelling at them and threatening to return them to México if they did not work hard enough; in addition, he recalls the day President Kennedy was assassinated; years later, in 1980, he married, and he and his wife had two sons.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Alberto Miguel Marcial came from a wealthy family and had five siblings; his father and grandfather worked in agriculture and owned a lot of land; when he was two years old, his father died; his grandfather later passed away as well, leaving his mother alone; Alberto went to school very briefly, and later as an adult he learned to read, write, and speak English; as a bracero, he worked in California and Colorado, picking beets, cantaloupe, onions, and potatoes; although he worked illegally for a time in the United States, he was able to obtain legal documentation and eventually become a citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Marcial briefly mentions his family and childhood; his father and grandfather died, leaving his mother alone, but she later remarried; Alberto’s step-father worked as a bracero, and when he returned from a contract, Alberto decided to leave as well; he walked for two days to get a contract in Oaxaca, México; from there he was transported by train to Irapuato, Guanajuato, México, where he stayed for a few days; when leaving Oaxaca, people told him to buy cigarettes if he could, because they were scarce in the United States due to the war; he was able to sell them to soldiers and make some money; as a bracero, he worked in California and Colorado, picking beets, cantaloupe, onions, and potatoes; he goes on to detail various worksites, living arrangements, housing, amenities, provisions, friendships, daily routines, duties, treatment, recreational activities, and correspondence with family members; in addition, he mentions that for the first fifteen days of one of his contracts, he and other men ate at a restaurant every day until they had earned enough money to buy their own food; when his contract in Colorado ended he asked for a transfer to Fresno, California, so he could find his brother, which he eventually did; sometime after the program ended, he worked illegally in the United States, but he was caught by immigration officials; they helped him obtain legal documentation, and he ultimately became a U.S. citizen.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Froylan Huerta González was born on July 14, 1941, in Huaniqueo de Morales, Michoacán, México; he had three sisters and two brothers; his parents were campesinos, but his father also owned a bar, which proved to be the family’s main source of income; by the time he was roughly seven years old, he had learned to work the land; he was not formally educated for very long, but he did learn to read and write; during the sixties he worked illegally in the United States, but he was later able to obtain legal documentation. Summary of Interview: Mr. Huerta briefly describes his family and what it was like growing up in a small town; he recalls that in order to get on the list of available workers in Empalme, Sonora, México, he had to pay between six and eight hundred pesos and wait one or two months to be called; while there he worked washing dishes at a restaurant in exchange for food; he explains the entire process he underwent, including medical exams; from there he was transported in a train, like an animal, to Mexicali, Baja California, México; he also describes the centers he passed through and being deloused; as a bracero, he worked in the fields of Arizona and California; he goes on to detail the various worksites, housing, amenities, living arrangements, provisions, daily routines, duties, treatment, payments, remittances, and recreational activities, including trips into town; in addition, he gives a detailed explanation of the work involved in picking onions; one of the foremen he worked with even took him to see lucha libre, and he got hooked on it; he also mentions that on payday, some of the men would spend the entire weekend dancing and drinking; they would show up hungover for work on Monday morning; after the program ended he returned to México, but soon after, he began working illegally in the United States; he later married, and his wife helped him obtain legal documentation; overall, his memories of the bracero program are positive, especially because he was able to save money.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: María Guadalupe Gutiérrez was born in Manuel Doblado, Guanajuato, México; she was formally educated through the third grade; her husband, Francisco Gutiérrez, was born in Lluvia de Oro, Chihuahua, México; he had five brothers and six sisters, but his father also had eight children with another woman; his mother was twenty-three years old and a teacher in the city when she was taken by his father who was sixty years old; although Francisco was never formally educated the way his older siblings were, his mother did tutor him at home; as a boy his parents moved to Mexicali, Baja California, México; during the sixties, he worked as a bracero in California picking pecans, tomatoes, and other fruits; he and María later immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: María and her daughter, Leticia, offer a detailed description of Francisco’s family and parents; he and two of his brothers traveled to Empalme, Sonora, México, in order to pick two thousand kilograms of cotton and get the cards they needed to enlist in the bracero program; they then returned to Mexicali, Baja California, where they were medically examined and fumigated; one of his brother-in-laws chose to return to México rather than endure being stripped and deloused; Francisco worked as a bracero in California picking pecans, tomatoes, and other fruits; he describes treatment, provisions, and free time, including trips into town; María mentions that they met just after he returned from a contract, and they married only a few months later; on his next contract she went with him, but she later stayed with his parents while he was gone; Leticia was their first born, and they had six more children; Leticia describes how difficult life was for her when her father was gone; he sent letters and money home every fifteen days; when María was pregnant for the third time, with twins, he returned from his last bracero contract just as they were born; both María and Francisco worked illegally for a time in the United States; in 1985, Leticia legally immigrated to the United States with her husband; by 2000, she was able to obtain legal documentation for her parents as well.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco Gutiérrez was born in Lluvia de Oro, Chihuahua, México; he had five brothers and six sisters, but his father also had eight children with another woman; his mother was twenty-three years old and a teacher in the city when she was taken by his father who was sixty years old; although Francisco was never formally educated the way his older siblings were, his mother did tutor him at home; as a boy his parents moved to Mexicali, Baja California, México; his wife, María Guadalupe Gutiérrez, was born in Manuel Doblado, Guanajuato, México; she was formally educated through the third grade; during the sixties, he worked as a bracero in California picking pecans, tomatoes, and other fruits; he and María later immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Francisco’s wife, María, and daughter, Leticia, offer a detailed description of his family and parents; he and two of his brothers traveled to Empalme, Sonora, México, in order to pick two thousand kilograms of cotton and get the cards they needed to enlist in the bracero program; they then returned to Mexicali, Baja California, where they were medically examined and fumigated; one of his brother-in-laws chose to return to México rather than endure being stripped and deloused; Francisco worked as a bracero in California picking pecans, tomatoes, and other fruits; he describes treatment, provisions, and free time, including trips into town; María mentions that they met just after he returned from a contract, and they married only a few months later; on his next contract she went with him, but she later stayed with his parents while he was gone; Leticia was their first born, and they had six more children; Leticia describes how difficult life was for her when her father was gone; he sent letters and money home every fifteen days; when María was pregnant for the third time, with twins, he returned from his last bracero contract just as they were born; both María and Francisco worked illegally for a time in the United States; in 1985, Leticia legally immigrated to the United States with her husband; by 2000, she was able to obtain legal documentation for her parents as well.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Lorenzo González was born in 1925, in the state of Jalisco, México; he grew up financially secure, and neither he nor his family were ever in need of anything; when he was young, he wanted something to do, so he enlisted in the bracero program to come to the United States; in 1950, he returned to México; two years later he began working at a bank in Guadalajara, Jalisco, México; he was ultimately able to immigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. González recalls writing letters to his mother while he was in the United States; he states there was always a lot of work to be done, which always led to a chance to make money; as a bracero, some of his duties included working with machines that picked lettuce and driving tractors and transportation buses; in addition, while he was in Fresno, California, he was a foreman, and he was responsible for picking up braceros at the processing centers; it was difficult, because oftentimes more men than they needed loaded themselves into the truck in the hope of getting work; during his free time he would play ball or talk with the others, and on weekends he would go into town; he explains that sometimes, when the buses transporting the men to the fields were full, he would drive himself in his own car and take others with him; although he was aware that for some men things went horribly, this was not the case for him; in 1950, he returned to México; two years later he began working at a bank in Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, and he continued working there until 1978; he comments that overall, the program did not change his life much; he worked very hard, but he was young and it was a way to pass the time; moreover, he states that braceros came to help the United States during an especially difficult time; even children were in the fields at the time, because there was no one else left to work.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Roberto García Sánchez was born on May 13, 1933, in El Bueyero, Mexticacán, Jalisco, México; his mother’s name was Dominga Sánchez, and his father’s name was Cruz García; Robert had eight siblings, but two of them died; his father, Cruz, owned a small plot of land, a milpa, which he inherited from his father; consequently, Robert grew up sowing corn and beans as well as caring for animals; in 1942, Cruz enlisted in the bracero program; later, in the midfifties, Roberto followed in his father’s footsteps, and he continued working with the program until it ended in 1964; he and his family later immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. García gives a detailed description of his parents, siblings and children; he recalls his father becoming a bracero and the difficulties he and his family faced; they had to work the land and care for the animals on their own; in addition, he describes the various tasks his mother had to perform as well; he later began working illegally in Arizona against his father’s wishes; during the midfifties he went with a coyote in Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, and later to Empalme, Sonora, México, to enlist as a bracero; on average, he had to wait there for at least fifteen days; he was able to survive by working as a cook in a restaurant, and he continued doing so whenever he had to wait for a contract; as part of the processing he was stripped, which he describes as embarrassing and sad; in addition, he mentions having to pay a representative for handling the papers, as well as travel expenses; as a bracero, he worked in six different places, but he spent most of his time in the San Gabriel, California, area; he goes on to detail the camps’ living conditions, housing, accommodations, daily routines, payments, deductions, remittances, and recreational activities, including trips into town; in 1994, he and his family legally immigrated to the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Herminio Estrada Tozcano was born on a ranch in Saloya, Jalisco, México; he was the second born, of his two sisters; his father died in the revolution when he was roughly three or four years old; he started going to school, but his teacher was killed during the Cristero War, which put an end to his formal education; when he was ten years old he began working in agriculture; Librada Estrada was born in Unión de Tula, Jalisco, México; she had three brothers and three sisters; in 1942, she and Herminio were married; later that same year, he enlisted in the bracero program and worked in Arizona and California until the program ended in 1964; they later moved to the United States and were ultimately able to legally and permanently settle there. Summary of Interview: Librada talks about how she and Herminio met and courted for a year before getting married in 1942; later that same year, he traveled to Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, to enlist in the bracero program; his first contract took him to Phoenix, Arizona, where he picked lettuce for eighteen months; while in Arizona, he also worked in Aguila, Somerton, and Yuma; his contracts in California took him to work in Salinas and Yuba City; a friend of his wrote letters to Librada for him, because he did not know how to write; he sent home what little money he could; sometimes, he was only left $1.75 or $2.00 after deductions; if men complained, the foremen would remind them that México was close enough for them to return if they were dissatisfied; he explains that while in Yuma, he worked half a day on Saturday and was then given permission to go to México for the rest of the weekend; Librada moved to San Luis, Sonora, México, with their four children to be closer to Herminio while he worked in Yuma; while living in Sonora, they had seven more children, four of whom survived; Herminio continued working with the program until it ended in 1964, at which point he returned to Sonora and continued working in the fields there; Herminio and Librada later moved to the United States and were ultimately able to legally and permanently settle there.
Estrada, Librada and Herminio Estrada Librada
Estrada Tozcano, Herminio and Librada Estrada
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Francisco Casas Martínez was born April 10, 1929, on a large ranch named La Ermita de los Correas in Jerez, Zacatecas, México; he came from a family of agricultural workers and was the youngest of his six siblings; by the time he was five years old, he helped care for the animals and work the land; although he was formally educated, he never really liked school and often found himself in trouble; by his own admission, he did not learn very much; in 1948, he enlisted in the bracero program, and he worked in Arizona and California planting, watering, picking, and packing various fruits and vegetables; he and his family were ultimately able to legally immigrate to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Casas describes what it was like growing up on a ranch and how he helped with the land and the animals; he initially learned about the bracero program through people that would go to the ranches and charge roughly three hundred pesos to enlist people; in 1948, he enlisted as a bracero and went through a contracting center in Guadalajara, Jalisco, México; from there he traveled by bus to the border; he was later examined, which included getting x-rays and being deloused; as a bracero, he worked in Arizona and California planting, watering, picking, and packing various fruits and vegetables; he goes on to detail work hours, duties, living conditions, accommodations, provisions, treatment, payments, deductions, remittances, recreational activities, and working relationships; in addition, he states that he did not eat the food when it was bad, but he did manage to stop by a commissary at the worksite and buy some milk and bread to eat before work; moreover, he discusses that there were times when women worked in the fields with the men cutting lettuce and strawberries or cleaning and pruning the crops; when he was twenty-five, he married and later had five children; he explains that two of them died in México, while he was working as a bracero; after the program ended, he returned to México; he and his family were able to legally immigrate to the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Campos Ortiz was born in 1943, in Aquila, Michoacán, México; he was the fifth born of his six brothers and four sisters; by the time he was eight years old, he was working to help support his younger siblings; consequently, he was never formally educated; he became a bracero in the early sixties, when he was roughly seventeen years old, using false papers; one of his uncles and a few of his cousins were also braceros; by the mideighties he and his family had all legally immigrated to the United States. Summary of Interview: Mr. Campos describes his hometown, family, and childhood; in the early sixties, when he was roughly seventeen years old, he enlisted in the bracero program using false papers that his father had acquired for him; he explains various aspects of the contracting process in México, including organization by municipalities, necessary paperwork, exams, and travel methods; moreover, he notes that his uncle was injured as a result of the medical assessments he underwent; Jesús goes on to detail worksites, duties, hours, housing, provisions, treatment, payments, remittances, recreational activities, and working relationships; in addition, he describes being in the United States for the first time and becoming so ill that he had to be taken to the hospital; he thinks it was due in large part to the pressure of being away from home; while working in Woodland, California, he and others were paid 13¢ per box of tomatoes, which caused some to organize a strike for higher pay; although he was not involved, he was still treated poorly and faced other difficulties in light of the situation; he also mentions an instance where he and a friend were loading a truck, his friend fainted and was taken to a hospital by ambulance; while discussing employers he notes that many ranchers preferred undocumented workers, because they did not require the same pay or benefits as braceros; by the mideighties he, his wife, and all seven children had legally immigrated to the United States.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Jesús Bautista Rodríguez was born in 1924, in Tonaya, Jalisco, México; he had three brothers and two sisters, both of whom passed away; they were all born on a ranch and came from a family of agricultural workers; his father hired a tutor for the children, but Jesús never liked school, consequently, only his brothers were formally educated; by the time he was twelve years old, both his parents had passed away; in 1956, Jesús enlisted in the bracero program, and he labored primarily in California, picking blackberries, cherries, pears, strawberries, and tomatoes; after the program ended, he worked in the United States illegally for a time, but he was later able to obtain legal documentation. Summary of Interview: Mr. Bautista briefly discusses his family and childhood; he was married in 1947, and he and his wife later had four children; by 1956, his wife became very ill, which prompted him to enlist in the bracero program in Guadalajara, Jalisco, México; from there he was transported to Empalme, Sonora, México, then to Mexicali, Baja California, México, where he underwent medical examinations; as a bracero, he labored primarily in California, picking blackberries, cherries, pears, strawberries, and tomatoes; he goes on to detail the different worksites, duties, schedules, living conditions, provisions, housing, accommodations, payments, and remittances; in addition, he describes an instance in which a foreman separated him and eleven other men from the rest of the braceros to offer them permanent work, housing, and the opportunity to bring their families to the United States; he turned down the chance, because he wanted to return to México, with his family, where he was most comfortable; furthermore, he explains that as a bracero he was paid poorly and often just earned enough to pay for food; even so, he was able to pay off his home in México; after the program ended, he worked in the United States illegally for a time, but he was later able to obtain legal documentation.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: María Ayón was born on December 12, 1930, in Morelia, Michoacán, México; she had eight brothers and sisters, four of whom are still living; the small ranch where she was raised did not yield enough for her family to survive; consequently, they moved to México, Distrito Federal; she later married and had twelve children; in 1990, her husband passed away, and shortly thereafter, she immigrated to the United States; while there, she met her second husband, Vicente Ayón Luna, during the midnineties; Vicente worked in the fields of California under the bracero program. Summary of Interview: Ms. Ayón discusses her family and childhood at length; she begins to sob upon recollecting the abusive relationship of her parents; her mother died when she was roughly fifteen years old; consequently, as the eldest of the five children still living at home, she was forced to care for the rest of her siblings; she later married and had twelve children of her own, nine of whom survived; moreover, she talks about each of her children, their careers, and how she lost three of them; in 1990, her husband passed away, and shortly thereafter, she immigrated to the United States; a few years later, in 1996, she met Vicente Ayón Luna, who was also a widow; three months later, they were married; they moved to Oakley, California, and labored in the fields together for about a year; Vicente was a bracero, and he worked primarily in California picking cotton, grapes, green beans, lettuce, oranges, and tomatoes; as a bracero, he suffered, particularly when crossing into the United States, because he was stripped in front of everyone; when the program ended, he chose to stay rather than return to México; he later married his first wife, and she was able to help him obtain legal documentation.
Biographical Synopsis of Interviewee: Mateo Murillo Lamas was born on September 21, 1916, in Valparaíso, Zacatecas, México; when he was roughly twenty years old, he moved to México, Distrito Federal; in 1942, while there, he was taken at gunpoint by Mexican officials and transported by train the United States to enlist in the bracero program; he continued voluntarily working as a bracero through the midfifties, primarily in the cotton and lettuce fields of Arizona, California, and Colorado; in 1989, he became a U.S. citizen. Summary of Interview: Mr. Murillo vividly recalls being in México, Distrito Federal, in 1942, when he was taken at gunpoint by Mexican officials and loaded into a train; there were roughly one thousand men aboard, and by the time they reached California, there were only two hundred men, at most, because so many had jumped off the train; as he was about to be transported to his worksite, American officials asked if he would be willing to take arms and help the United States should the need arise; he agreed and signed a paper that put him on a reserve list, but he was never called to action; in spite of his initial recruitment, he continued voluntarily working as a bracero through the midfifties, primarily in the cotton and lettuce fields of Arizona, California, and Colorado; he goes on to chronicle the various worksites, living and working conditions, duties, daily routines, treatment, payments, contract renewals, and recreational activities; in addition, he mentions receiving a portion of his salary in the form of stamps that he could use to purchase clothing or shoes according to a rationing schedule; he also comments that in the years following the war braceros were generally not treated as well, because their impending necessity was no longer at issue; moreover, he explains how he was ultimately able to use his previous work history to become a U.S. citizen in 1989; he also asserts that braceros not only supported the economy of both countries, but of the war as well.